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List of United States Senators from California
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Current delegation
Dianne Feinstein (D)
Kamala Harris (D)
since January 3, 2017
California elects United States Senators to Class 1 and Class 3. The state has been represented by 44 people in the Senate since it was admitted to the Union on September 9, 1850. Its current U.S. Senators are Democrats Dianne Feinstein and Kamala Harris.
Contents
[hide]
1 List of Senators
2 Living former U.S. Senators from California
3 References
4 See also
List of Senators[edit]
Class 1
Class 1 U.S. Senators belong to the electoral cycle that were first elected for only one U.S. Congress in the first elections of 1850, and then the seat was contested again every three Congresses (six years) thereafter. The seat in recent years have been contested in 2000, 2006, and 2012. The next election will be in 2018.
C
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Class 3
Class 3 U.S. Senators belong to the electoral cycle that were first elected for the first three United States Congresses in the first elections of 1850, and then the seat was contested again every three Congresses (six years) thereafter. The seat in recent years have been contested in 1998, 2004, and 2010, and 2016. The next election will be in 2022.
#
Senator
Party
Years in office
Electoral history
T
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m
T
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Electoral history
Years in office
Party
Senator
#
1
John C. Frémont Democratic September 9, 1850 –
March 3, 1851 Elected December 20, 1849. 1 31st 1 Elected December 20, 1849. September 9, 1850 –
March 2, 1855 Democratic
William M. Gwin
1
Vacant March 4, 1851 –
January 29, 1852 Legislature failed to elect. 2 32nd
2
John B. Weller Democratic January 30, 1852 –
March 3, 1857 Elected late in 1852.
Lost re-election.
33rd
34th 2 Legislature failed to elect. March 3, 1855 –
January 13, 1857 Vacant
Elected late in 1857. January 14, 1857 –
March 3, 1861 Democratic
William M. Gwin
3
David C. Broderick Democratic March 4, 1857 –
September 16, 1859 Elected in 1856.
Died. 3 35th
36th
Vacant September 17, 1859 –
November 2, 1859
4
Henry P. Haun Democratic November 3, 1859 –
March 4, 1860 Appointed to continue Broderick's term.
Lost election to finish Broderick's term.
5
Milton Latham Democratic March 5, 1860 –
March 3, 1863 Elected to finish Broderick's term.
Lost re-election.
37th 3 Elected in 1860.
Retired. March 4, 1861 –
March 3, 1867 Democratic
James A. McDougall
2
6
John Conness Republican March 4, 1863 –
March 3, 1869 Elected during the 1862/63 cycle.[1] 4 38th
39th
40th 4 Elected during the 1866/67 cycle. March 4, 1867 –
March 3, 1873 Republican
Cornelius Cole
3
7
Eugene Casserly Democratic March 4, 1869 –
November 29, 1873 Elected in 1868.
Resigned. 5 41st
42nd
43rd 5 Elected in 1872 or 1873.
Retired. March 4, 1873 –
March 3, 1879 Republican
Aaron A. Sargent
4
Vacant November 30, 1873 –
December 22, 1873
8
John S. Hager Democratic December 23, 1873 –
March 3, 1875 Elected to finish Casserly's term.
Retired.
9
Newton Booth Anti-Monopoly March 4, 1875 –
March 3, 1881 Elected in 1874.
Retired. 6 44th
45th
46th 6 Elected in 1878.
Retired. March 4, 1879 –
March 3, 1885 Democratic
James T. Farley
5
10
John Franklin Miller Republican March 4, 1881 –
March 8, 1886 Elected in 1880.
Died. 7 47th
48th
49th 7 Elected in 1885. March 4, 1885 –
June 21, 1893 Republican
Leland Stanford
6
Vacant March 9, 1886 –
March 22, 1886
11
George Hearst Democratic March 23, 1886 –
August 3, 1886 Appointed to continue Miller's term.
Successor qualified.
12
Abram P. Williams Republican August 4, 1886 –
March 3, 1887 Elected to finish Miller's term.
Retired.
13
George Hearst Democratic March 4, 1887 –
February 28, 1891 Elected in 1887.
Died. 8 50th
51st
Vacant March 1, 1891 –
March 18, 1891
52nd 8 Re-elected in 1891.
Died.
14
Charles N. Felton Republican March 19, 1891 –
March 3, 1893 Elected to finish Hearst's term.
Retired.
15
Stephen M. White Democratic March 4, 1893 –
March 3, 1899 Elected in 1893.
Retired. 9 53rd
June 22, 1893 –
July 25, 1893 Vacant
Appointed to continue Stanford's term.
Elected January 23, 1895 to finish Stanford's term.[2] July 26, 1893 –
March 3, 1915 Republican
George Clement Perkins
7
54th
55th 9 Re-elected January 13, 1897.[3]
Vacant March 4, 1899 –
February 6, 1900 10 56th
16
Thomas R. Bard Republican February 7, 1900 –
March 3, 1905 Elected late in 1900.
Lost re-election.
57th
58th 10 Re-elected January 13, 1903.[4]
17
Frank P. Flint Republican March 4, 1905 –
March 3, 1911 Elected January 11, 1905.[5]
Retired. 11 59th
60th
61st 11 Re-elected January 12, 1909.[6]
Retired.
18
John D. Works Republican March 4, 1911 –
March 3, 1917 Elected in 1911.
Retired. 12 62nd
63rd
64th 12 Elected in 1914.
Lost re-election. March 4, 1915 –
March 3, 1921 Democratic
James D. Phelan
8
19
Hiram Johnson Republican March 4, 1917 –
August 6, 1945 Elected in 1916.
Didn't take seat until March 16, 1917 as he wanted to remain Governor of California. However, he was still elected and qualified as Senator. 13 65th
66th
67th 13 Elected in 1920. March 4, 1921 –
March 3, 1933 Republican
Samuel M. Shortridge
9
Re-elected in 1922. 14 68th
69th
70th 14 Re-elected in 1926.
Lost renomination.
Re-elected in 1928. 15 71st
72nd
73rd 15 Elected in 1932.
Lost renomination, then resigned. March 4, 1933 –
November 8, 1938 Democratic
William Gibbs McAdoo
10
Re-elected in 1934. 16 74th
75th
Appointed to finish McAdoo's term.
Retired. November 9, 1938 –
January 2, 1939 Democratic
Thomas M. Storke
11
76th 16 Elected in 1938. January 3, 1939 –
November 30, 1950 Democratic
Sheridan Downey
12
Re-elected in 1940.
Died. 17 77th
78th
79th 17 Re-elected in 1944.
Ran for re-election, but dropped out of renomination race due to ill health.
Resigned early due to ill health.
Vacant August 7, 1945 –
August 25, 1945
20
William F. Knowland Republican August 26, 1945 –
January 2, 1959 Appointed to continue Johnson's term.
Elected November 5, 1946 to finish Johnson's term.
Re-elected in 1946. 18 80th
81st
Appointed to finish Downey's term,
having been elected to the next term. December 1, 1950 –
January 1, 1953 Republican
Richard Nixon
13
82nd 18 Elected in 1950.
Resigned to become Vice President of the United States.
Appointed to continue Nixon's term.
Elected November 2, 1954 to finish Nixon's term.[2] January 2, 1953 –
January 2, 1969 Republican
Thomas Kuchel
14
Re-elected in 1952.
Retired to run for Governor of California. 19 83rd
84th
85th 19 Re-elected in 1956.
21
Clair Engle Democratic January 3, 1959 –
July 30, 1964 Elected in 1958.
Died. 20 86th
87th
88th 20 Re-elected in 1962.
Lost renomination.
Vacant July 31, 1964 –
August 3, 1964
22
Pierre Salinger Democratic August 4, 1964 –
December 31, 1964 Appointed to continue Engle's term.
Lost election to full term, then resigned early to give successor preferential seniority.
23
George Murphy Republican January 1, 1965 –
January 1, 1971 Appointed to finish Salinger's term, having been elected to the next term.
Elected in 1964.
Lost re-election, then resigned early to give successor preferential seniority. 21 89th
90th
91st 21 Elected in 1968. January 3, 1969 –
January 2, 1993 Democratic
Alan Cranston
15
24
John V. Tunney Democratic January 2, 1971 –
January 1, 1977 Appointed to finish Murphy's term, having been elected to the next term.
Elected in 1970.
Lost re-election, then resigned early to give successor preferential seniority. 22 92nd
93rd
94th 22 Re-elected in 1974.
25
S. I. Hayakawa Republican January 2, 1977 –
January 2, 1983 Appointed to finish Tunney's term, having been elected to the next term.
Elected in 1976.
Retired. 23 95th
96th
97th 23 Re-elected in 1980.
26
Pete Wilson Republican January 3, 1983 –
January 6, 1991 Elected in 1982. 24 98th
99th
100th 24 Re-elected in 1986.
Retired.
Re-elected in 1988.
Resigned to become Governor of California. 25 101st
102nd
27
John F. Seymour Republican January 7, 1991 –
November 3, 1992 Appointed to continue Wilson's term.
Lost election to finish Wilson's term.
28
Dianne Feinstein Democratic November 4, 1992 –
Present Elected to finish Wilson's term.
103rd 25 Elected in 1992. January 3, 1993 –
January 3, 2017 Democratic
Barbara Boxer
16
Re-elected in 1994. 26 104th
105th
106th 26 Re-elected in 1998.
Re-elected in 2000. 27 107th
108th
109th 27 Re-elected in 2004.
Re-elected in 2006. 28 110th
111th
112th 28 Re-elected in 2010.
Retired.[7]
Re-elected in 2012. 29 113th
114th
115th 29 Elected in 2016. January 3, 2017 –
Present Democratic
Kamala Harris
17
To be determined in the 2018 election. 30 116th
117th
118th 30 To be determined in the 2022 election.
#
Senator
Party
Years in office
Electoral history
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m
T
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Electoral history
Years in office
Party
Senator
#
Class 1
Class 3
Living former U.S. Senators from California[edit]
There are currently three living former U.S. Senators from California. The most recent Senator to die was John V. Tunney (January 2, 1971 – January 1, 1977) on January 12, 2018. The most recently serving senator to die was Alan Cranston (1969–1993) on December 31, 2000.
Senator
Class
Term of office
Date of birth (and age)
Wilson, PetePete Wilson 1 000000001983-01-03-0000January 3, 1983 – January 6, 1991 (1933-08-23) August 23, 1933 (age 84)
Seymour, John F.John F. Seymour 1 000000001991-01-07-0000January 7, 1991 – November 3, 1992 (1937-12-03) December 3, 1937 (age 80)
Boxer, BarbaraBarbara Boxer 3 000000001993-01-03-0000January 3, 1993 – January 3, 2017 (1940-11-11) November 11, 1940 (age 77)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ John Conness was elected as a Democrat, but changed party to Republican after the election.[citation needed]
^ Jump up to: a b Byrd, p. 83.
Jump up ^ "Perkins Re-elected in California". The New York Times. p. 12.
Jump up ^ "Perkins of California Re-elected". The New York Times. January 14, 1903. p. 12.
Jump up ^ The World Almanac and Encyclopedia 1906. 1905. p. 108.
Jump up ^ "Perkins of California Re-elected". The New York Times. January 13, 1903. p. 5.
Jump up ^ Joseph, Cameron (January 8, 2015). "Barbara Boxer to retire in 2016". The Hill. Retrieved January 17, 2016.
"States in the Senate – California's United States Senators". via Senate.gov.
"Party Division in the Senate, 1789-Present". via Senate.gov.
Byrd, Robert C. (October 1, 1993). Wolff, Wendy, ed. "The Senate, 1789-1989: Historical Statistics, 1789-1992". United States Senate Historical Office (volume 4 Bicentennial ed.). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
See also[edit]
List of United States Representatives from California
United States congressional delegations from California
[hide]
v
t
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Lists of United States congressional delegations
States
Alabama (H, S)
Alaska (H, S)
Arizona (H, S)
Arkansas (H, S)
California (H, S)
Colorado (H, S)
Connecticut (H, S)
Delaware (H, S)
Florida (H, S)
Georgia (H, S)
Hawaii (H, S)
Idaho (H, S)
Illinois (H, S)
Indiana (H, S)
Iowa (H, S)
Kansas (H, S)
Kentucky (H, S)
Louisiana (H, S)
Maine (H, S)
Maryland (H, S)
Massachusetts (H, S)
Michigan (H, S)
Minnesota (H, S)
Mississippi (H, S)
Missouri (H, S)
Montana (H, S)
Nebraska (H, S)
Nevada (H, S)
New Hampshire (H, S)
New Jersey (H, S)
New Mexico (H, S)
New York (H, S)
North Carolina (H, S)
North Dakota (H, S)
Ohio (H, S)
Oklahoma (H, S)
Oregon (H, S)
Pennsylvania (H, S)
Rhode Island (H, S)
South Carolina (H, S)
South Dakota (H, S)
Tennessee (H, S)
Texas (H, S)
Utah (H, S)
Vermont (H, S)
Virginia (H, S)
Washington (H, S)
West Virginia (H, S)
Wisconsin (H, S)
Wyoming (H, S)
Other
American Samoa
District of Columbia
Guam
Northern Mariana Islands
Puerto Rico
U.S. Virgin Islands
Obsolete
Dakota Territory
Northwest Territory
Orleans Territory
Philippines
Southwest Territory
Lists of former House members
List of former Senators
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_United_States_Senators_from_California&oldid=833835228"
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Zebra mussel
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Zebra mussel
Live zebra mussels underwater with shells open, animals respiring, siphons visible
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Bivalvia
Order: Veneroida
Family: Dreissenidae
Genus: Dreissena
Species: D. polymorpha
Binomial name
Dreissena polymorpha
(Pallas, 1771)[1]
The zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) is a small freshwater mussel. This species was originally native to the lakes of southern Russia and Ukraine,[2] being first described in 1769 by the German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas in the Ural, Volga, and Dnieper rivers.[3] However, the zebra mussel has been accidentally introduced to numerous other areas, and has become an invasive species in many different countries worldwide. Since the 1980s, they have invaded the Great Lakes and the Hudson River. They are commonly found on the bottom of ships and eat the algae that is food for fish. Inspectors check ships for the mussels before they leave port. Scientists are trying to control the mussels.
Zebra mussels get their name from a striped pattern commonly seen on their shells, though it is not universally present. They are usually about the size of a fingernail, but can grow to a maximum length of nearly 2 in (5.1 cm).[4][5] Shells are D-shaped, and attached to the substrate with strong byssal threads, which come out of their umbo on the dorsal (hinged) side.
Contents
[hide]
1 Ecology
1.1 Lifecycle
1.2 Predators
1.3 Other control
2 As an invasive species
2.1 North American invasion
2.1.1 By location
2.1.2 Cost
3 Effects of zebra mussels
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Ecology[edit]
Three color varieties of the shell of the zebra mussel
Close-up of a typical shell of a zebra mussel
Zebra mussel and the closely related and ecologically similar quagga mussels are filter-feeding organisms. They remove particles from the water column. The zebra mussels process up to one liter of water per day, per mussel.[6] Some particles are consumed as food, and feces are deposited on the lake floor. Nonfood particles are combined with mucus and other matter and deposited on lake floors as pseudofeces. Since the zebra mussel has become established in Lake Erie, water clarity has increased from 6 inches to up to three feet in some areas.[7] This improved water clarity allows sunlight to penetrate deeper, enabling growth of submerged macrophytes. These plants, when decaying, wash up on shorelines, fouling beaches and cause water quality problems.[8]
Lake floor food supplies are enriched by zebra mussels as they filter pollution out of the water. This biomass becomes available to bottom-feeding species and to the fish that feed on them.[9] The catch of yellow perch increased 5 fold after the invasion of zebra mussels into Lake St. Clair.[10]
Zebra mussels attach to most substrates including sand, silt, and harder substrates, but usually, juvenile mussels prefer harder, rockier substrates to which to attach. Other mussel species frequently represent the most stable objects in silty substrates, and zebra mussels attach to, and often kill these mussels. They build colonies on native unionid clams, reducing their ability to move, feed, and breed, eventually leading to their deaths. This has led to the near extinction of the unionid clams in Lake St. Clair and the western basin of Lake Erie.[7] This pattern is being repeated in Ireland, where zebra mussels have eliminated the two freshwater mussels from several waterways, including some lakes along the River Shannon in 1997.
In 2012, the National University of Ireland, Galway, said "The discovery of zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) in Lough Derg and the lower Shannon region in 1997 (McCarthy et al 1997, a & b) has led to considerable concern about the potential ecological and economic damage that this highly invasive aquatic nuisance species can cause."[11]
Lifecycle[edit]
The lifespan of a zebra mussel is four to five years.[6] A female zebra mussel begins to reproduce within 6–7 weeks of settling.[12]
An adult female zebra mussel can produce 30,000 to 40,000 eggs in each reproductive cycle, and over 1 million each year.[13] Free-swimming microscopic larvae, called veligers, drift in the water for several weeks and then settle onto any hard surface they can find. Zebra mussels also can tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions and adults can even survive out of water for about 7 days.
Drawing of zebra mussel, showing the byssus
Predators[edit]
Research on natural enemies, both in Europe and North America, has focused on predators, particularly birds (36 species) and fish (15 and 38 species eating veligers and attached mussels) .
The vast majority of the organisms that are natural enemies in Europe are not present in North America. Ecologically similar species do exist, but these species are unlikely to be able to eliminate those mussels already established and will have a limited role in their control. [14]
Crayfish could have a significant impact on the densities of 1- to 5-mm-long zebra mussels. An adult crayfish consumes around 105 zebra mussels every day, or about 6000 mussels in a season. Predation rates are significantly reduced at cooler water temperatures. Fish do not seem to limit the densities of zebra mussels in European lakes. Smallmouth bass are a predator in the zebra mussels' adopted North American Great Lakes habitat.[15]
Other control[edit]
On June 4, 2014, Canadian conservation authorities announced that a test using liquid fertilizer to kill invasive zebra mussels was successful. This test was conducted in a lakefront harbor in the western province of Manitoba.[16][17] However, there continue to be outbreaks in Lake Winnipeg.[18]
Similar tests were run in Illinois, Minnesota, and Michigan, using Zequanox, a biopesticide[19]
As an invasive species[edit]
Sign advising boaters on how to prevent zebra mussel spread on Titicus Reservoir in North Salem, New York
The native distribution of the species is in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea in Eurasia. Zebra mussels have become an invasive species in North America, Great Britain, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and Sweden. They disrupt the ecosystems by monotypic colonization, and damage harbors and waterways, ships and boats, and water treatment and power plants. Water treatment plants are most affected because the water intakes bring the microscopic free-swimming larvae directly into the facilities. Zebra mussels also cling to pipes under the water and clog them.
Grossinger reported it in Hungary in 1794. Kerney and Morton described the rapid colonization of Britain by the zebra mussel, first in Cambridgeshire in the 1820s, London in 1824, and in the Union Canal near Edinburgh in 1834.[15] In 1827, zebra mussels were seen in the Netherlands at Rotterdam. Canals that artificially link many European waterways facilitated their early dispersal. It is nonindigenous in the Czech Republic in the Elbe River in Bohemia since 1893;[20] in southern Moravia, it is probably native.[21] Around 1920 the mussels reached Lake Mälaren in Sweden.
The first appearance of the organism in northern Italy was in Lake Garda in 1973;[22] in central Italy, they appeared in Tuscany in 2003.[23]
Zebra mussels are also present in British waterways. Many water companies are reporting having problems with their water treatment plants with the mussels attaching themselves to pipeworks. Anglian Water has estimated that it costs £500,000 per year to remove the mussels from their treatment plants.[24] It has been argued that zebra mussels have also had an effect on fish populations, with dwindling fish populations in areas such as Salford Quays.[25]
North American invasion[edit]
They were first detected in Canada in the Great Lakes in 1988, in Lake St. Clair, located east/northeast of Detroit and Windsor.[26] It is believed they were inadvertently introduced into the lakes in the ballast water of ocean-going ships traversing the St. Lawrence Seaway. Another possible, often neglected, mode of introduction is on anchors and chains, although this has not been proven. Since adult zebra mussels can survive out of water for several days or weeks if the temperature is low and humidity is high, chain lockers provide temporary refuge for clusters of adult mussels that could easily be released when transoceanic ships drop anchor in freshwater ports. They have become an invasive species in North America, and as such they are the target of federal policy to control them, for instance in the National Invasive Species Act (1996).
Using models based on the genetic algorithm for rule-set production (GARP), a group of researchers predicted that the southeastern United States is moderately to highly likely to be inhabited by zebra mussels and the Midwest unlikely to experience a zebra mussel invasion of water bodies.[27] However, this model has since been proven incorrect. In 2006 a researcher (also using GARP) predicted invasion as far west as the North Platte River, Nebraska, by 2015.[28] As of March 2016, zebra mussels have affected hundreds of lakes in the Midwest including the Great Lake Michigan, and the largest freshwater lake in Wisconsin, Lake Winnebago. See the March 2016 USGS Zebra mussel distribution map for full scope of invasion.[29]
Congressional researchers have estimated that the zebra mussel has cost businesses and communities over $5 billion since their initial invasion.[30] Zebra mussels have cost power companies alone over $3 billion.[30]
By location[edit]
Zebra mussels line the shoreline of Lake Michigan
From their first appearance in American waters in 1988, zebra mussels have spread to a large number of waterways, including Lake Simcoe in the Great Lakes region, the Mississippi, Hudson, St. Lawrence, Ohio, Cumberland, Missouri, Tennessee, Huron, Colorado, and Arkansas Rivers, and 11 lakes and 5 river basins in Texas. Today, the invasion continues. For instance, in 2009, the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation confirmed that zebra mussels had been found in Laurel Lake in the Berkshires.[31] That same year the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources announced that live zebra mussels have been found in Pelican Lake, Minnesota. This was the first confirmed sighting in the Red River Basin, which extends across the international border into the province of Manitoba.[32] In 2013, their presence in Manitoba's Lake Winnipeg was confirmed and aggressive efforts to eradicate them in 2014 have not succeeded. New contamination was found outside treated areas of Lake Winnipeg in 2015 and they have also been found in the Red River near the lake in Selkirk Park in 2015.[33] Large number were seen at Grand Beach (Manitoba) in 2017 [18]
In July 2010, the North Dakota Game and Fish Department confirmed the presence of zebra mussel veliger in the Red River between Wahpeton, ND, and Breckenridge, MN.[34] As recently as 2010 California similarly reported invasions.[35] In 2011, an invasion of zebra mussels shut down a water pipeline in the Dallas area. This resulted in reduced water supplies during a drought year, worsening water restrictions across the Dallas area.[36]
A common inference made by scientists predicts that the zebra mussel will continue spreading passively, by ship and by pleasure craft, to more rivers in North America. Trailered boat traffic is the most likely vector for invasion into Western North America. This spread is preventable if boaters thoroughly clean and dry their boats and associated equipment before transporting them to new bodies of water. Since no North American predator or combination of predators has been shown to significantly reduce zebra mussel numbers, such spread would most likely result in permanent establishment of zebra mussels in many North American waterways.
A major decrease in the concentration of dissolved oxygen was observed in the Seneca River in central New York in the summer of 1993. This decrease was due to extremely high concentrations of zebra mussels in the watershed. Additionally, the Seneca River had significantly less chlorophyll in the water, which is used as a measure of phytoplankton biomass, due to the presence of zebra mussels.[37]
Cost[edit]
The cost of fighting the pests at power plants and other water-consuming facilities is substantial, but the exact magnitude of the damage is a matter of some controversy. According to the Center for Invasive Species Research at the University of California, Riverside,[26] the cost of management of zebra mussel in the Great Lakes alone exceeds $500 million a year. A more conservative study estimated total economic costs of $267 million for electric-generation and water-treatment facilities in the entire United States from 1989 through 2004.[38]
Effects of zebra mussels[edit]
Zebra mussel-encrusted vector averaging current meter from Lake Michigan
Zebra mussels are filter feeders. When in the water, they open their shells to admit detritus. As their shells are very sharp, they are known for cutting people's feet, resulting in the need to wear water shoes wherever they are prevalent.
Since their colonization of the Great Lakes, they have covered the undersides of docks, boats, and anchors. They have also spread into streams and rivers throughout the US. In some areas they completely cover the substrate, sometimes covering other freshwater mussels. They can grow so densely that they block pipelines, clogging water intakes of municipal water supplies and hydroelectric companies. Zebra mussels do not attach to cupronickel alloys, which can be used to coat intake and discharge grates, navigational buoys, boats, and motors where the species tends to congregate.[26]
Zebra mussels are believed to be the source of deadly avian botulism poisoning that has killed tens of thousands of birds in the Great Lakes since the late 1990s.[39] They are edible, however because they are so efficient at filtering water they tend to accumulate pollutants and toxins. For this reason most experts recommend against consuming zebra mussels.[40]
They are also responsible for the near extinction of many species in the Great Lake system by outcompeting native species for food and by growing on top of and suffocating the native clams and mussels.[41]
Zebra mussels also affect all classes of algae species, resulting in a shortage of food sources to native species of freshwater mussels and fish in the Great Lakes.[42]
Zebra mussel infestation on the walls of Arthur V. Ormond Lock on the Arkansas River
However, zebra mussels and other non-native species are credited with the increased population and size of smallmouth bass in Lake Erie[43] and yellow perch in Lake St. Clair.[44] They cleanse the waters of inland lakes, resulting in increased sunlight penetration and growth of native algae at greater depths. This cleansing also increases water visibility and filters out pollutants. Each quagga and zebra mussel filters about 1 US quart (0.95 L) of water a day when confined to small tanks.[45] In lakes, their filtering effects are usually spatially restricted (near the lake bottom) due to nonhomogeneous water column mixing.
Because zebra mussels damage water intakes and other infrastructure, methods such as adding oxidants, flocculants, heat, dewatering, mechanical removal, and pipe coatings are becoming increasingly common.[46]
See also[edit]
Mussel, mostly about true mussels
Quagga mussel
References[edit]
Jump up ^ WoRMS (2013). "Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas, 1771)". World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved Feb 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Hoddle, M. S. "Quagga & Zebra Mussels". Center for Invasive Species Research, UC Riverside. Retrieved 2010-06-29.
Jump up ^ Mollusca Slovenska [The Slovak molluscs]. VEDA vydavateľstvo Slovenskej akadémie vied, Bratislava, 344 pp.
Jump up ^ The National Atlas of the United States of America (2009-09-17). "Zebra Mussels". Nationalatlas.gov. Retrieved 2010-06-29.
Jump up ^ "Zebra mussel — Invasive species: Minnesota DNR". Dnr.state.mn.us. 1999-08-24. Retrieved 2010-06-29.
^ Jump up to: a b Amy Benson (2009-12-22). "Zebra mussel FAQs". Fl.biology.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2010-06-29.
^ Jump up to: a b Schloesser, Don W.; Nalepa, Thomas F. (1994). "Dramatic decline of unionid bivalves in offshore waters of western Lake Erie after infestation by the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha". USGS Great Lakes Science Center. Retrieved 2014-10-20.
Jump up ^ Alteration of the Freshwater Ecosystem, An Overview, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Jump up ^ Garton, D. W.; Berg, D. J.; Stoeckmann, A. M.; Hagg, W. R. (1993). "Biology of recent invertebrate invading species in the Great Lakes: The spiny water flea, Bythotrephes cederstoemi, and the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha." (in B. N. McKnight editor. Biological pollution: The control and impact of invasive exotic species. ed.). Indianapolis, Indiana.: Indiana Academy of Science.: 63–84.
Jump up ^ Sagoff, M. "What's Wrong with Exotic Species?" (PDF). College Park, Maryland: Institute for Philosophy and Public Policy, Maryland School of Public Affairs. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "New Zebra Mussel Webpage". Retrieved 2012-10-14.
Jump up ^ Borcherding, J. (1991). "The annual reproductive cycle of the freshwater mussel Dreissena polymorpha Pallas in lakes". Oecologia. 87: 208–218. doi:10.1007/bf00325258.
Jump up ^ "Zebra Mussels (Dreissena polymorpha)". Retrieved 2014-05-25.
Jump up ^ Daniel P. Molloya; Alexander Y. Karatayevb; Lyubov E. Burlakovab; Dina P. Kurandinac; Franck Laruellea (1997). "Natural enemies of zebra mussels: Predators, parasites, and ecological competitors". Reviews in Fisheries Science. 5 (1): 27–97. doi:10.1080/10641269709388593. Retrieved 2012-10-16.
^ Jump up to: a b Mackie, G; Gibbons, W; Muncaster, B; Gray, I (1989). "The Zebra Mussel, Dreissena polymorpha: A synthesis of European Experiences and a preview for North America". Ontario Ministry of Environment.
Jump up ^ "Manitoba stops zebra mussel invasion with fertilizer". Retrieved 2014-06-04.
Jump up ^ "Potash experiment killed zebra mussels at infested harbour, officials say". Retrieved 2014-06-04.
^ Jump up to: a b "Manitoba family spots 'dark clumps' of zebra mussels at Grand Beach". Retrieved 2017-06-06.
Jump up ^ "Michigan-made pesticide Zequanox adds muscle to war on zebra mussels". Retrieved 2017-01-29.
Jump up ^ Blažka, F. (1893). "Do Čech zavlečená slávka: Dreissena polymorpha Pall". Vesmír (in Czech). 22 (15): 177–178.
Jump up ^ (in Czech) Horsák M., Juřičková L., Beran L., Čejka T. & Dvořák L. (2010). "Komentovaný seznam měkkýšů zjištěných ve volné přírodě České a Slovenské republiky. [Annotated list of mollusc species recorded outdoors in the Czech and Slovak Republics]". Malacologica Bohemoslovaca, Suppl. 1: 1–37. PDF.
Jump up ^ Giusti F; Oppi E (1973). "Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) nuovamente in Italia. (Bivalvia, Dreissenidae)". Mem Mus Civ St Nat Verona (in Italian). 20: 45–49.
Jump up ^ Elisabetta Lori; Simone Cianfanelli (2006). "New records of Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas, 1771) (Mollusca: Bivalvia: Dreissenidae) from Central Italy" (PDF). Aquatic Invasions. 1 (4): 281–283. doi:10.3391/ai.2006.1.4.11.
Jump up ^ "British waterways fight invasion by Russian zebra mussels". BBC News. 2011-08-04.
Jump up ^ "Angling club closes down at 'clean' Salford Quays". BBC News. 19 December 2011. Retrieved 2011-12-19.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Zebra Mussels Overwhelm U.S. Waterways in the Great Lakes Region and Beyond – Copper Screens and Coatings Provide a Solution to this $500 million Problem". Copper Development Association. 2009-07-30. Archived from the original on 2011-03-13.
Jump up ^ Drake, John M., and Jonathan M. Bossenbroek (2004). "The Potential Distribution of zebra mussels in the United States." BioScience (Vol. 54, No 10). Retrieved 2014-2-19.
Jump up ^ Stimers, M.J. 2008. Zebra Mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) Invasion into the Upper Platte River: Using GIS and Genetic Algorithm Rule-set Prediction to Model Spread. The Pennsylvania Geographer 45(2): 57–70.
Jump up ^ "Zebra Quagga Mussel Sightings Distribution". USGS. USGS. Retrieved 2016-04-10.
^ Jump up to: a b "Zebra Mussels". Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "2 Mass. towns start fight against zebra mussel". Boston Herald. 2009-07-13.
Jump up ^ "Zebra mussels found in Pelican Lake in Otter Tail County" (Press release). MN Department of Natural Resources. 2009-09-17. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
Jump up ^ Winnipeg Sun Province redoubles fight against zebra mussels Winnipeg Sun, MAY 28, 2015, Retrieved May 28, 2015
Jump up ^ "Zebra Mussel Discovered in North Dakota" (Press release). ND Game and Fish Department. 2010-07-01. Retrieved 2010-07-02.
Jump up ^ "Zebra mussels found" (PDF). USDA. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
Jump up ^ Stoler, Steve (2011-10-26). "Water district braces for North Texas drought crisis | wfaa.com Dallas – Fort Worth". Wfaa.com. Retrieved 2012-01-05.
Jump up ^ Effler, Steven W., Carol M. Brooks, Keith Whitehead, Bruce Wagner, Susan M. Doerr, MaryGail Perkins, Clifford A. Siegfried, Leigh Walrath and Raymond P. Canale (1996). "Impact of Zebra Mussel Invasion on River Water Quality." Water Environment Research (Vol. 68, No 2). pp. 205–214. Retrieved 2014-2-19.
Jump up ^ Connelly, NA; O'Neill, CR Jr; Knuth, BA; Brown, TL (2007-05-24). "Economic impacts of zebra mussels on drinking water treatment and electric power generation facilities". Environ Manage. 40: 105–12. PMID 17530329. doi:10.1007/s00267-006-0296-5.
Jump up ^ Janega, James (2008-01-15). "Botulism takes fatal toll on thousands of Great Lakes birds". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 2011-04-05. Retrieved 2011-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Zebra Mussels – Too Toxic for ‘Taste Of". Buffalo Rising Online. Sep 24, 2008. Retrieved Jan 5, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Minnesota Sea Grant Overview". Retrieved 2011-12-02.
Jump up ^ Nicholls, Kenneth H.; Hopkins, Gordon J. (1993-01-01). "Recent Changes in Lake Erie (North Shore) Phytoplankton: Cumulative Impacts of Phosphorus Loading Reductions and the Zebra Mussel Introduction". Journal of Great Lakes Research. 19 (4): 637–647. doi:10.1016/S0380-1330(93)71251-4.
Jump up ^ "Report at ESPN Sports". Sports.espn.go.com. 2005-03-16. Retrieved 2010-06-29.
Jump up ^ Exotic species at PUAF.
Jump up ^ "Great Lakes: 'Amazing change'". Retrieved 2009-08-06.
Jump up ^ Strayer, David L. (2009). "Twenty Years of Zebra Mussels: Lessons from the Mollusk That Made Headlines." Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment (Vol. 7, No 3). pp. 135–141. Retrieved 2014-2-19.
Further reading[edit]
Minchin, D (2003). "The Zebra Mussel Dreissena polymopha (Pallas) extends its range westwards in Ireland". Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society. 27: 176–182. ISSN 0332-1185.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dreissena polymorpha.
Zebra mussels in Kawartha Lakes, by Jim Russell
Zebra Mussel on National Atlas
Zebra Mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) – FactSheet
Dreissina FAQs
Species Profile- Zebra Mussel (Dreissena polymorpha), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for Zebra Mussel.
What are Zebra Mussels?
Zebra Mussel Watch
Charting the progression of the Zebra mussel in the Eastern United States
Zebra mussel in N.I.
CISR – Zebra Mussels Center for Invasive Species Research summary on Zebra Mussels
GLANSIS Species FactSheet
USGS Zebra Mussel Monitoring Program for North Texas United States Geological Survey
Did the Zebra Mussel affect Atlantic Fishing?-C.Yukna (EMSE France)
Zebra Mussels: Questions and Answers for Inland Lake Managers
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