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Temple (LDS Church)
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This article is about temples in the LDS Church. For information about temples in the wider Latter Day Saint movement, see Temple (Latter Day Saints).
See also: List of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), a temple is a building dedicated to be a House of the Lord. Temples are considered by church members to be the most sacred structures on earth.
Upon completion, temples are usually open to the public for a short period of time (an "open house"). During the open house, the church conducts tours of the temple with missionaries and members from the local area serving as tour guides, and all rooms of the temple are open to the public. The temple is then dedicated as a "House of the Lord", after which only members who are deemed worthy are permitted entrance.
They are not churches or meetinghouses designated for public weekly worship services, but rather are places of worship open only to the faithful where certain rites of the church must be performed.[1]
There are 159 operating temples (which includes 10 previously dedicated, but closed for renovation), 11 under construction, and 19 announced (not yet under construction). At present, there are temples in many U.S. states, as well as in many countries across the world. Several temples are at historical sites of the LDS Church, such as Nauvoo, Illinois and Palmyra, New York. The importance of temples is often emphasized in weekly meetings, and regular participation in "temple work" is strongly encouraged for all Latter-day Saints (LDS).
Within temples, members of the church make covenants, receive instructions, and perform sacred ceremonies and ordinances, such as baptism for the dead, washing and anointing (or "initiatory" ordinances), the endowment, and eternal marriage sealings. Ordinances are a vital part of the theology of the church, which teaches that they were practiced by the Lord's covenant people in all dispensations. Additionally, members consider the temple a place to commune with God, seek God's aid, understand the will of God, and receive personal revelation.
LDS temple construction reached an all-time high in 2000. As of March 2016, there are 150 operating temples.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Biblical references
1.2 Latter-day temples
2 Purposes
3 Symbolism in the temple
4 Temple ordinances
5 Entrance requirements
5.1 Worthiness interview
5.2 History of interview questions
5.3 Types of recommends
5.4 Emergency access
6 Temple weddings
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
History[edit]
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Operating
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Announced
Closed
Suspended
Historic Site
Wasatch Front, Utah area temples
Biblical references[edit]
Latter Day Saints cite various Old Testament references to temple ordinances such as those found in Exodus 29:4–9, Exodus 28:2–43 and Leviticus 8:6–13. The words "HOLINESS TO THE LORD" can be found on LDS temples as referenced in Exodus 28:36.[4]}}
Likewise the Tabernacle was considered a "portable temple" by the children of Israel in the Old Testament.[5]}}
Latter-day temples[edit]
The first Latter-day Saint temple ceremonies were performed in Kirtland, Ohio, but differed significantly from the endowment performed on the second floor of Joseph Smith's Red Brick Store in Nauvoo, Illinois, and the Nauvoo Temple. Kirtland ordinances included washings and anointings (differing in many ways from the modern portion) and the washing of the feet ordinance. For nearly four years, beginning in 1842, Smith's Red Brick Store functioned as a de facto temple—the site of the first washings, anointings, endowments, and sealings. In contrast, the grand edifice known as the Nauvoo Temple was in operation for only two months before the Latter Day Saints left Illinois for the West.
Preparations to initiate the first members of Smith's Quorum of the Anointed,[6] or Holy Order, as it was also known, were made on May 3, 1842. The walls of the second level of the Red Brick Store were painted with garden-themed murals, the rooms fitted with carpets, potted plants, and a veil hung from the ceiling. All the while, the ground level continued to operate as Smith’s general mercantile.
After the early events of the succession crisis, Brigham Young assumed control of the church's headquarters at Nauvoo, Illinois. While he and the rest of the Quorum of the Twelve made contingency plans for abandoning the city, he may have hoped that it would not prove necessary. For example, in early 1845, Young convened a conference at the Norwegian colony at Norway, Illinois, and announced a plan to build a Latter-day Saint town there with a temple for the use of the Norwegian Latter Day Saints.[citation needed]
Meanwhile, Young urged the Latter-day Saints in Nauvoo to redouble their efforts to finish the temple. By the end of 1845, the building was sufficiently finished to allow temple ordinances to be performed. Ordinances continued to be performed in early 1846 as the Mormons were forced to abandon the city. A small crew remained in the city and continued to work on the temple until April 30, 1846, when it was formally dedicated in a private ceremony[7] by Joseph Young,[citation needed] the senior of the Seven Presidents of the Seventy. It was used for three months, then abandoned in late summer 1846. The completed temple was eventually destroyed by fire, and the remaining structure was later demolished by a whirlwind.
The Frankfurt Germany Temple
Upon reaching the Great Basin, Brigham Young began to build settlements based on the City of Zion plan and designated four of these to contain temples: Salt Lake City (1847), St. George (1871), Manti (1875), and Logan (1877). The St. George Temple was the first to be completed in 1877, followed by Logan (1884) and Manti (1888). The Salt Lake Temple took 40 years to complete because of various setbacks and delays. It was dedicated in 1893.
Latter-day Saint temple building halted until the presidency of Joseph F. Smith, who announced two additional temples: Cardston, Alberta (1913), and Lāʻie, Hawaiʻi (1915). Cardston became the first Latter-day Saint temple dedicated outside of the United States. Smith broke with the previous tradition (established since Kirtland) of building temples with upper and lower courts. Temples previously had been ever larger, but the Laie Hawaii Temple was smaller than the Nauvoo Temple had been.
Both Cardston and Laie were dedicated under church president Heber J. Grant, as was a temple in Mesa, Arizona. George Albert Smith dedicated the next temple in Idaho Falls, Idaho. David O. McKay dedicated five additional temples including one in Bern, Switzerland—which was the first temple dedicated in Europe and the first temple to use film recording of the endowment rather than live actors. Joseph Fielding Smith dedicated a temple in Ogden, Utah and Harold B. Lee dedicated its twin in Provo, Utah.
The Logan Utah Temple
Spencer W. Kimball began a plan to build many more smaller temples according to standardized plans. Twenty-one temples were dedicated during his presidency, including the tiny Papeete Tahiti Temple—which has a floorspace of less than 10,000 square feet (900 m²). This trend has continued. Nine additional temples were dedicated in the presidency of Ezra Taft Benson and two in the brief presidency of Howard W. Hunter.
Under church president Gordon B. Hinckley, the church dedicated 77 temples. In 1997, Hinckley introduced a standardized, smaller temple plan designed to bring temple services to smaller or remote congregations at a reduced cost. The first of this new generation of temples was completed in 1998 with the Monticello Utah Temple. The original plan called for 6,800 square feet (630 m2), later increased to 10,700 square feet (990 m2). Subsequent revisions to the standard design further increased the size and complexity of the temples. The majority of the temples dedicated under Hinckley's tenure were of the smaller design, but one particularly noteworthy achievement was the rebuilding of the temple in Nauvoo, Illinois, known as the Nauvoo Illinois Temple.
Hinckely's successor, Thomas S. Monson, dedicated 26 temples during his time as church president. His counselors in the First Presidency also dedicated a number of temples during Monson's administration.
As of June 2018, there have not yet been any temples dedicated under current church president Russell M. Nelson. There are 159 operating temples (which includes 10 previously dedicated, but closed for renovation), 11 under construction, and 19 announced (not yet under construction).
The spires of the Salt Lake Temple at night
Purposes[edit]
Temples have a different purpose from LDS meetinghouses.[1] Today, temples serve two main purposes: (1) Temples are locations in which worthy Latter-day Saints can perform sacred ordinances on behalf of themselves, their deceased ancestors, or unrelated deceased persons whose names are compiled from historical records through the church's Family Record Extraction Program. (2) Temples are considered to be houses of holiness where members can go to commune with God.
Ezra Taft Benson, a former church president, taught:
When I have been weighed down by a problem or a difficulty, I have gone to the House of the Lord with a prayer in my heart for answers. These answers have come in clear and unmistakable ways.[8]
Such personal revelation can be received as needed, but many feel that it is easier to receive such revelation in a temple.
Symbolism in the temple[edit]
Main article: Temple architecture (Latter-day Saints)
A doorknob of the Salt Lake Temple bearing an image of a beehive and carrying the inscription, "Holiness to the Lord"
Many things in the temple are considered to be symbolic, from the clothing worn (those who attend the temple dress in white, a symbol of purity), to the architecture of the building and rooms, to the ceremonies themselves.[citation needed]
Latter-day Saint temples are constructed with several symbolic elements meant to represent their religious theology. Each temple has the words "Holiness to the Lord" inscribed on it, the same inscription on the Old Testament Temple of Solomon.[citation needed]
Most temples are built facing east, the direction from which Jesus Christ is prophesied to return.[citation needed] The spires and towers on the east end of multi-spired temples are elevated higher than spires and towers on the west side for this same reason, and to represent the Melchizedek, or higher, priesthood.
Some temples, such as Salt Lake, Chicago, and Washington D.C., have triple spires on each side of the temple representing three different offices in both the Melchizedek priesthood and the Aaronic priesthood.[citation needed]
Stones carved with sun, moon, and earth or star designs are placed in ascending order around the Salt Lake Temple façade to represent the Latter-day Saint belief in a celestial, terrestrial, and telestial kingdom, or three degrees of glory, in the afterlife. However, they are arranged using the description of the woman found in Revelation 12:1 which says "And there appeared a great wonder in heaven; a woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars."
A statue of the Angel Moroni, stands atop most temples built after the Salt Lake Temple. The statue design represents the Latter-day Saint belief that Moroni was the angel spoken of in Revelation 14.[9]
Temple ordinances[edit]
The Laie Hawaii Temple is the fifth oldest Latter-day Saint temple and the first built outside the North American continent. It is also one of three temples designed to look like Solomon's Temple in scripture and one of the few temples without spires.
Main article: Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)
LDS Church members perform rituals (termed ordinances) within temples. They are taught that temple ordinances are essential to achieving the condition of exaltation after the final judgment. They are also taught that a vast number of dead souls exist in a condition termed as spirit prison, and that a dead individual upon whom the temple ordinances are completed will have a chance to be freed of this imprisoning condition. In this framework ordinances are said to be completed on behalf of either the participant, or a dead individual the same sex as the participant ("on behalf of the dead" or "by proxy").
Ordinances performed in the temple include:
Baptism and confirmation on behalf of the dead
Melchizedek priesthood ordination on behalf of the dead
Washing and anointing (also known as the "Initiatory" ordinances)
The endowment
sealing ordinances (for opposite-sex couples and for parents and their children)
Most ordinances are performed by proxy only on participants who have already completed the ordinance. Similarly, most ordinances are completed only one time for a participant in a lifetime and all subsequent temple ordinance participation is seen as acting for a dead individual. Baptism, confirmation, and priesthood ordination are usually performed in temples only when on behalf of the dead. The initiatory, endowment, and sealing ceremonies are today performed only within a temple.
The sealing ordinance can be performed on behalf of dead couples; so long as the two living participants are of opposite sex they need not be married. It is also performed on behalf of living couples who wish to be legally married. In this manner, the ordinance is typically performed as a celestial marriage, with the idea the marriage bond lasts after their death, or for "time and all eternity". A "time only" modification can be made to the ordinance, such as when the surviving widow of a celestial marriage wishes to legally remarry.[10] If children were born to the couple prior to the couple's sealing ceremony, the parents and the children may also be sealed together to form an eternal family unit. Children born to a couple after the sealing ceremony are considered to be automatically sealed to the parents, or "born in the covenant".
In addition to the ordinances listed above, 19th century temples were host to other ordinances such as the baptism for health, baptism for renewal of covenants, and the second anointing.[11] In 1922, Heber J. Grant discontinued the practice of baptisms for health in the church. The second anointing was never available to the general membership and was for the most part discontinued by the late 1940s.
Entrance requirements[edit]
The Washington D.C. Temple is the 16th Latter-day Saint temple.
The Preston England Temple, located outside Chorley, Lancashire, England.
The LDS Church booklet "Preparing to Enter the Holy Temple" explains that Latter-day Saints "do not discuss the temple ordinances outside the temples." Further, the booklet states:
It was never intended that knowledge of these temple ceremonies would be limited to a select few who would be obliged to ensure that others never learn of them. It is quite the opposite, in fact. With great effort the church urges every soul to qualify and prepare for the temple experience.[12]
To enter the temple, an individual must be baptized, and after one year, may seek a temple recommend. The individual is interviewed by his/her bishop, during which the candidate is asked a series of questions to determine worthiness to enter the temple. The individual is also interviewed by his or her stake president. The bishop and stake president sign the recommend, indicating their approval of that member's worthiness. The individual also signs the recommend, acknowledging the responsibility to remain worthy to hold the recommend. A recommend is valid for two years.
Worthiness interview[edit]
Further information: Confession (religion) § Mormonism
To qualify for a temple recommend, an LDS Church member must faithfully answer a series of questions which affirm the individual's adherence to essential church doctrine. The questions address the following:[13][14]
Faith in and testimony of God the Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost.
Testimony of the atonement of Jesus Christ.
Testimony of the Restoration of the Gospel.
Support of the President of the Church and his authority, and other general authorities and local church leaders.
Living the law of chastity.
Relationships with family members as being in harmony with church teachings.
Support for or affiliation with any group or individual with teachings or practices that are not in agreement with church teachings.
Making a good faith effort to keep the covenants the individual has made, to attend church meetings and keep their life in harmony with the gospel.
Honesty in dealings with others.
Paying a full tithe.
Keeping the Word of Wisdom.
Payment of and keeping current on child support or alimony, if applicable.
If already attending the temple, does the individual keep the covenants made in the temple and wear the temple garment "night and day" according to the covenants made in the temple.
Making a full confession of any serious sins to church leaders.
Regarding oneself worthy to enter the temple and take part in the ordinances within.
Further reading
Daniel H. Ludlow, ed. (1992). "Interviews". Encyclopedia of Mormonism. Macmillan Publishing Company. p. 697-98.
Edward L. Kimball (1996–97). "Confession in LDS Doctrine and Practice". BYU Studies. 36 (2). CS1 maint: Date format (link)
Edward L. Kimball (1998). "The History of LDS Temple Admission Standards". Journal of Mormon History 24 (1): 135–176.
History of interview questions[edit]
A list of questions were first introduced in 1857 and used to qualify whether an individual could enter the Endowment House, before the first temple in Utah was built. They reflected the context of the times, including questions about branding an animal that you did not own and using another person's irrigation water.[citation needed]
Since then, the temple recommend questions have changed significantly, though less so in recent years.
In 1996, the first question about a belief in God, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost was split into three questions. A second question was modified to ask if the member sustained the First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve as prophets, seers, and revelators. The question about wearing the garments was qualified, added a clause about wearing them as instructed in the temple.[15]
In 1999, a simplified question about financial obligations was asked of all members, not just divorced members.[16]
In 2012, the question about wearing the garments was slightly modified to clarify that the garments should not be worn separately.[citation needed]
Types of recommends[edit]
The standard Temple Recommend authorizes a member who has been baptized at least one year prior to take part in all temple ordinances and is valid for two years.
A Recommend for Living Ordinances is given to individuals who are participating in the endowment for the first time, being sealed to a spouse, or anyone being married in the temple for time only. It may only be used in conjunction with a standard Temple Recommend.[17]
A Limited-use Recommend is available to members who have not yet received their endowment or who have not been a member for one year. These may also be issued to a group for a single visit to the temple.[17] These can be issued to youth 12 and older who will take part in specific temple ordinances, to single members age 8–20 who are preparing to be sealed to their parents, or for individuals, not endowed, who wish to observe specific ordinances. The church member must meet the same worthiness standards as a standard temple recommend in an interview with the member's bishop. Unlike the standard temple recommend, a limited-use recommend does not require a year's membership nor an interview with a stake president. A limited-use recommend is only valid for proxy baptisms and confirmation ordinances.
Emergency access[edit]
Those without recommends occasionally need to enter temples after dedication during fires, medical emergencies, or building inspections. They are escorted by temple personnel during such visits. Temples may offer introductory tours to new local firefighters and emergency medical technicians during regularly scheduled maintenance periods.[18]
An LDS Temple in Omaha, Nebraska
Temple weddings[edit]
Main articles: Sealing (Mormonism) and Sealing room
The LDS temple wedding is a process which culminates in the participation by the couple in a ritual called the sealing ordinance; which involves pronouncing the couple as having a permanent marriage bond which persists even beyond death. This ceremony, among others, is taught as being vital to an individual's and family's exaltation status, following the final judgment.
A temple marriage is held inside a temple, so a temple recommend is required to attend the ceremony. Couples who initially marry outside the temple must wait one year before they can be sealed in the temple unless the couple resides in a country where governments restrict the ability for a legal marriage to take place in the temple, as is the case in many European countries with strict secular marriage laws.[citation needed]
Receptions after the temple ceremony, or engagement parties before the temple marriage, can be attended by anyone, since they are typically held at locations such as local LDS meetinghouses, homes, other churches or other public venues.
See also[edit]
Book: Temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
LDS Church portal
Council House (Salt Lake City)
Endowment House
Holy of Holies (LDS Church)
List of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Temple (Latter Day Saints)
Temple president
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Of Chapels and Temples: Explaining Mormon Worship Services", News Release, Newsroom, LDS Church, 15 November 2007, retrieved 2012-10-10
Jump up ^ "150th Temple Is Dedicated: Provo City Center Temple becomes the 16th Utah temple", Newsroom, LDS Church, 2016-03-20
Jump up ^ Walch, Tad (March 20, 2016), "Elder Oaks dedicates Provo City Center Temple as 150th temple of the LDS Church", Deseret News
Jump up ^ "Temple", LDS Bible Dictionary, KJV (LDS), LDS Church
Jump up ^ "Tabernacle", LDS Bible Dictionary, KJV (LDS), LDS Church
Jump up ^ Anderson, Devery S.; Bergera, James, eds. (2005). Joseph Smith's Quorum of the Anointed, 1842-1845: A Documentary History. Salt Lake City: Signature Books. p. [page needed]. ISBN 1-56085-186-4. OCLC 57965858. Archived from the original on 2013-02-02.
Jump up ^ https://www.lds.org/ensign/2002/07/the-first-nauvoo-temple-so-great-a-cause
Jump up ^ Benson, Ezra Taft (August 1985). "What I Hope You Will Teach Your Children about the Temple". Ensign. LDS Church.
Jump up ^ Talmage, James E. (1998) [1912]. The House of the Lord: A Study of Holy Sanctuaries, Ancient and Modern. Salt Lake City, Utah: Signature Books. p. 176. ISBN 1-56085-114-7.
Jump up ^ Church Handbook of Instructions, Book 1: Stake Presidencies and Bishoprics, Salt Lake City, Utah: LDS Church, 2010, p. 71
Jump up ^ Stapley, Jonathan; Wright, Kristine (2008). "'They Shall Be Made Whole': A History of Baptism for Health". Journal of Mormon History. SSRN 1664180  .
Jump up ^ "These Things Are Sacred", Preparing to Enter the Holy Temple, LDS Church, 2002
Jump up ^ Endowed from on High: Temple Preparation Seminar. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. pp. 10–11. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Being Worthy to Enter the Temple". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Church Makes Subtle Changes in Temple Recommend Interview" (PDF), Sunstone (News) (104): 87, September 1996, retrieved 2012-02-16
Jump up ^ "Changes Made to Recommend Interview" (PDF), Sunstone (Update) (117): 73–74, February 2000, retrieved 2012-02-16
^ Jump up to: a b Church Handbook of Instructions, Book 1, LDS Church, 2006, p. [page needed] .
Jump up ^ Federico, Hillary (2012-05-25). "Mormon Temple, Massachusetts Neighbors Live In Peace". Hartford Courant. Retrieved May 25, 2012. [dead link]
References[edit]
Buerger, David John. The Mysteries of Godliness: A History of Mormon Temple Worship (2nd ed.). San Francisco and Salt Lake City: Smith Research Associates and Signature Books. ISBN 1-56085-176-7. Archived from the original on 2006-03-23. .
Cowan, Richard O. (2011) [1998]. Temples to Dot the Earth. Springville, Utah: Cedar Fort. ISBN 978-1-55517-339-5. .
Kimball, Edward L. (1998). The History of LDS Temple Admission Standards. Journal of Mormon History. 24. pp. 135–176. Archived from the original on 2011-06-13. .
Monesees, Laurie Smith, The Temple: Dedicated to Peace, Herald House: 1993.
Packer, Boyd K. (1980). The Holy Temple. Salt Lake City, Utah: Bookcraft. ISBN 0-88494-411-5. .
Robison, Elwin C. (1997). The First Mormon Temple: Design, Construction, and Historic Context of the Kirtland Temple. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press. ISBN 0-8425-2333-2. .
Speek, Vickie Cleverley. "God Has Made Us a Kingdom" James Strang and the Midwest Mormon. Signature Books.
Talmage, James E. (1998) [1912]. The House of the Lord: A Study of Holy Sanctuaries, Ancient and Modern. Salt Lake City, Utah: Signature Books. ISBN 1-56085-114-7. .
Tvedtnes, John A. (1999). Early Christian and Jewish Rituals Related to Temple Practices. FAIR Conference. Ben Lomond, California: FairMormon.
Preparing to Enter the Holy Temple. LDS Church. 2002. .
"The Temple" British Broadcasting BBC, 2005-11-09. Article on Mormon temple worship from BBC Religion & Ethics website, last accessed 2006-09-19.
Further reading[edit]
Barber, Allen (2006), Celestial Symbols: Symbolism in Doctrine, Religious Traditions and Temple Architecture, Cedar Fort, ISBN 0-88290-808-1
Cowan, Richard O., Temples to Dot the Earth, January 1997, ISBN 1-55517-339-X
Greene, Mark (2000), The Scriptural Temple, Cedar Fort, ISBN 0-88290-681-X
King, David (2000), Come to the House of the Lord, Cedar Fort, ISBN 0-88290-687-9
Packer, Boyd K., The Holy Temple, June 1980, ISBN 0-88494-411-5
Parry, Donald W, ed. (1994). Temples of the Ancient World: Ritual and Symbolism. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book. ISBN 087579811X. OCLC 28927139.
Parry, Donald W.; Ricks, Stephen D, eds. (1999). The Temple in Time and Eternity. Provo, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, Brigham Young University. ISBN 0934893462. OCLC 42476043.
Shields, Mark (2009), Your Endowment, Cedar Fort, ISBN 1-59955-287-6
Talmage, James E., The House of the Lord Signature Books (reprint of the first edition) ISBN 1-56085-114-7
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
Temples at LDS.org, an official LDS Church website
Frequently Asked Questions: Temples at Mormon.org, an official LDS Church website
LDSChurchTemples.com
Topical bibliography + LDS Temple Preparation FAQ at MormonMonastery.org
Mormon Temples at AllAboutMormons.com
Temple Geography Links at Adherents.com
History of Mormon Temples at HistoryOfMormonism.com
Mormon Temples at LightPlanet.com
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X-ray telescope
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
International X-ray Observatory concept
An X-ray telescope (XRT) is a telescope that is designed to observe remote objects in the X-ray spectrum. In order to get above the Earth's atmosphere, which is opaque to X-rays, X-ray telescopes must be mounted on high altitude rockets, balloons or artificial satellites.
The basic elements of the telescope are the optics (focusing or collimating), that collects the radiation entering the telescope, and the detector, on which the radiation is collected and measured. A variety of different designs and technologies have been used for these elements.
Many of the existing telescopes on satellites are compounded of multiple copies or variations of a detector-telescope system, whose capabilities add or complement each other and additional fixed or removable elements[1][2] (filters, spectrometers) that add functionalities to the instrument.
Contents
[hide]
1 Optics
1.1 Focusing mirrors
1.2 Collimating Optics
2 Detectors
3 Missions employing X-ray telescopes
3.1 Exosat
3.2 Hard X-ray telescope
3.3 Filin telescope
3.4 SIGMA telescope
3.5 ART-P X-ray telescope
3.6 Focusing X-ray telescope
3.7 XRT on the Swift MIDEX mission
3.8 Normal incidence X-ray telescope
4 History of X-ray telescopes
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Optics[edit]
Main article: X-ray optics
The most common methods used in X-ray optics are grazing incidence mirrors and collimated apertures.
Focusing mirrors[edit]
NuSTAR, has captured these first, focused views of the supermassive black hole at the heart of our galaxy in high-energy X-ray light.
The utilization of X-ray mirrors allows to focus the incident radiation on the detector plane.
Different geometries (e.g. Kirkpartick-Baez or Lobster-eye) have been suggested or employed, but almost the totality of existing telescopes employs some variation of the Wolter I design. The limitations of this type of X-ray optics result in much narrower fields of view (typically <1 degree) than visible or UV telescopes.
With respect to collimated optics, focusing optics allow:
a high resolution imaging
a high telescope sensitivity: since radiation is focused on a small area, Signal-to-noise ratio is much higher for this kind of instruments.
The mirrors can be made of ceramic or metal foil[3] coated with a thin layer of a reflective material (typically gold or iridium). Mirrors based on this construction work on the basis of total reflection of light at grazing incidence.
This technology is limited in energy range by the inverse relation between critical angle for total reflection and radiation energy. The limit in the early 2000s with Chandra and XMM-Newton X-ray observatories was about 15 kilo-electronvolt (keV) light.[4] Using new multi-layered coated mirrors, the X-ray mirror for the NuSTAR telescope pushed this up to 79 keV light.[4] To reflect at this level, glass layers were multi-coated with tungsten (W)/silicon (Si) or platinum (Pt)/silicon carbide(SiC).[4]
Collimating Optics[edit]
Main article: coded aperture
While earlier X-ray telescopes were using simple collimating techniques (e.g. rotating collimators, wire collimators),[5] the technology most currently used on present days employs coded aperture masks. This technique uses a flat aperture patterned grille in front of the detector. This design results less sensitive than focusing optics and imaging quality and identification of source position is much poorer, however it offers a larger field of view and can be employed at higher energies, where grazing incidence optics become ineffective. Also the imaging is not direct, but the image is rather reconstructed by post-processing of the signal.
Detectors[edit]
Main article: X-ray astronomy detector
Several technologies have been employed on detectors for X-ray telescopes, ranging from counters like Ionization chambers, geiger counters or scintillators to imaging detectors like CCDs or CMOS sensors. The use of micro-calorimeters, that offer the added capability of measuring with great accuracy the energy of the radiation, is planned for future missions.
Missions employing X-ray telescopes[edit]
Main article: List of X-ray space telescopes
SIGMA instrument
ART-P instrument
The layout of the Swift XRT
Sounding rocket 36.049, carrying the MSSTA (silvery section at top) on the launch rail at White Sands Missile Range in May 1991
Exosat[edit]
The two low-energy imaging telescopes onboard Exosat used Wolter I X-ray optics and were equipped with two focal plane detectors:
a position-sensitive proportional counter (PSD) and
a channel multiplier array (CMA).[6]
Hard X-ray telescope[edit]
On board OSO 7 was a hard X-ray telescope. Its effective energy range: 7–550 keV, field of view (FOV) 6.5°, effective area ~64 cm2.
Filin telescope[edit]
The Filin telescope carried aboard Salyut 4, consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450 cm2 in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which has an effective surface of 37 cm2 for the range 0.2–2 keV. The FOV was limited by a slit collimator to 3° × 10° FWHM. The instrumentation included optical sensors mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors. The power supply and measurement units were inside the station. Ground based calibration of the detectors occurred along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data were collected in 4 energy channels: 2–3.1 keV, 3.1–5.9 keV, 5.9–9.6 keV, and 2–9.6 keV in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV, 0.55 keV, and 0.95 keV.
SIGMA telescope[edit]
The hard X-ray and low-energy gamma-ray SIGMA telescope covered the energy range 35–1300 keV,[7] with an effective area of 800 cm2 and a maximum sensitivity field of view of ~5° × 5°. The maximum angular resolution was 15 arcmin.[8] The energy resolution was 8% at 511 keV.[9] Its imaging capabilities were derived from the association of a coded mask and a position sensitive detector based on the Anger camera principle.[10]
ART-P X-ray telescope[edit]
The ART-P X-ray telescope covered the energy range 4 to 60 keV for imaging and 4 to 100 keV for spectroscopy and timing. There were four identical modules of the ART-P telescope, each consisting of a position sensitive multi-wire proportional counter (MWPC) together with a URA coded mask. Each module had an effective area of approximately 600 cm2, producing a FOV of 1.8° × 1.8°. The angular resolution was 5 arcmin; temporal and energy resolutions were 3.9 ms and 22% at 6 keV, respectively.[11] The instrument achieved a sensitivity of 0.001 of the Crab nebula source (= 1 "mCrab") in an eight-hour exposure. The maximum time resolution was 4 ms.[9][10]
Focusing X-ray telescope[edit]
The Broad Band X-ray Telescope (BBXRT) was flown on the Space Shuttle Columbia (STS-35) as part of the ASTRO-1 payload. BBXRT was the first focusing X-ray telescope operating over a broad energy range 0.3–12 keV with a moderate energy resolution (90 eV at 1 keV and 150 eV at 6 keV). The two Co-Aligned Telescopes with a segmented Si(Li) solid state spectrometer each (detector A and B) composite of five pixels. Total FOV 17.4´ diameter, Central pixel FOV 4´ diameter. Total area 765 cm2 at 1.5 keV, and 300 cm2 at 7 keV.
XRT on the Swift MIDEX mission[edit]
The XRT on the Swift MIDEX mission (0.2–10 keV energy range) uses a Wolter I telescope to focus X-rays onto a thermoelectrically cooled CCD.[12] It was designed to measure the fluxes, spectra, and lightcurves of Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) and afterglows over a wide dynamic range covering more than 7 orders of magnitude in flux. The XRT can pinpoint GRBs to 5-arcsec accuracy within 10 seconds of target acquisition for a typical GRB and can study the X-ray counterparts of GRBs beginning 20–70 seconds from burst discovery and continuing for days to weeks.
The overall telescope length is 4.67 m with a focal length of 3.500 mm and a diameter of 0.51 m.[12] The primary structural element is an aluminum optical bench interface flange at the front of the telescope that supports the forward and aft telescope tubes, the mirror module, the electron deflector, and the internal alignment monitor optics and camera, plus mounting points to the Swift observatory.[12]
The 508 mm diameter telescope tube is made of graphite fiber/cyanate ester in two sections. The outer graphite fiber layup is designed to minimize the longitudinal coefficient of thermal expansion, whereas the inner composite tube is lined internally with an aluminum foil vapor barrier to guard against outgassing of water vapor or epoxy contaminants into the telescope interior.[12] The telescope has a forward tube which encloses the mirrors and supports the door assembly and star trackers, and an aft tube which supports the focal plane camera and internal optical baffles.[12]
The mirror module consists of 12 nested Wolter I grazing incidence mirrors held in place by front and rear spiders. The passively heated mirrors are gold-coated, electroformed nickel shells 600 mm long with diameters ranging from 191 to 300 mm.[12]
The X-ray imager has an effective area of >120 cm2 at 1.15 keV, a field of view of 23.6 × 23.6 arcmin, and angular resolution (θ) of 18 arcsec at half-power diameter (HPD). The detection sensitivity is 2 × 10−14 erg cm−2s−1 in 104 s. The mirror point spread function (PSF) has a 15 arcsec HPD at the best on-axis focus (at 1.5 keV). The mirror is slightly defocused in the XRT to provide a more uniform PSF for the entire field of view hence the instrument PSF θ = 18 arcsec.[12]
Normal incidence X-ray telescope[edit]
Like MSSTA, NIXT used normal incidence reflective multilayer optics.[13]
History of X-ray telescopes[edit]
See also: History of X-ray astronomy
The first X-ray telescope employing Wolter Type I grazing-incidence optics was employed in a rocket-borne experiment in 1965 to obtain X-ray images of the Sun (R. Giacconi et al., ApJ 142, 1274 (1965)).
The Einstein Observatory (1978–1981), also known as HEAO-2, was the first orbiting X-ray observatory with a Wolter Type I telescope (R. Giacconi et al., ApJ 230,540 (1979)). It obtained high-resolution X-ray images in the energy range from 0.1 to 4 keV of stars of all types, supernova remnants, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies. HEAO-1 (1977-1979) and HEAO-3 (1979-1981) were others in that series. Another large project was ROSAT (active from 1990-1999), which was a heavy X-ray space observatory with focusing X-ray optics.
The Chandra X-Ray Observatory is among the recent satellite observatories launched by NASA, and by the Space Agencies of Europe, Japan, and Russia. Chandra has operated for more than 10 years in a high elliptical orbit, returning thousands 0.5 arc-second images and high-resolution spectra of all kinds of astronomical objects in the energy range from 0.5 to 8.0 keV. Many of the spectacular images from Chandra can be seen on the NASA/Goddard website.
NuStar is one of the latest X-ray space telescopes, launched in June 2012. The telescope observes radiation in a high-energy range (3 - 79 keV), and with high resolution. NuStar is sensitive to the 68 and 78 keV signals from decay of 44Ti in supernovae.
Gravity and Extreme Magnetism (GEMS) would have measured X-ray polarization but was canceled in 2012.
See also[edit]
List of telescope types
List of X-ray space telescopes
X-ray astronomy
Wolter telescope: A type of X-ray telescope built with glancing incidence mirrors.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Chandra :: About Chandra :: Science Instruments". chandra.si.edu. Retrieved 2016-02-19.
Jump up ^ "Instruments". sci.esa.int. Retrieved 2016-02-19.
Jump up ^ "Mirror Laboratory".
^ Jump up to: a b c NuStar: Instrumentation: Optics Archived November 1, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Seward, Frederick D.; Charles, Philip A. Exploring the X-ray Universe - Cambridge Books Online - Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511781513.
Jump up ^ Hoff HA (Aug 1983). "Exosat — the new extrasolar x-ray observatory". J Brit Interplan Soc (Space Chronicle). 36 (8): 363–7. Bibcode:1983JBIS...36..363H.
Jump up ^ Mandrou P; et al. (1993). "Overview of two-year observations with SIGMA on board GRANAT". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 97 (97): 1. Bibcode:1993A&AS...97....1M.
Jump up ^ Revnivtsev MG; Sunyaev RA; Gilfanov MR; Churazov EM; Goldwurm A; Paul J; Mandrou P; Roques JP (2004). "A hard X-ray sky survey with the SIGMA telescope of the GRANAT observatory". Astron Lett. 30 (8): 527–33. arXiv:astro-ph/0403481  . Bibcode:2004AstL...30..527R. doi:10.1134/1.1784494.
^ Jump up to: a b "International Astrophysical Observatory "GRANAT"". IKI RAN. Retrieved 2007-12-05.
^ Jump up to: a b "GRANAT". NASA HEASARC. Retrieved 2007-12-05.
Jump up ^ Molkov, S.V.; Grebenev, S.A.; Pavlinsky, M.N.; Sunyaev (March 1999). "GRANAT/ART-P Observations of GX3+1: Type I X-Ray it also Burst out and Persistent Emission". arXiv:astro-ph/9903089v1  .
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Burrows DN; Hill JE; Nousek JA; Kennea JA; Wells A; Osborne JP; Abbey AF; Beardmore A; Mukerjee K; Short ADT; Chincarini G; Campana S; Citterio O; Moretti A; Pagani C; Tagliaferri G; Giommi P; Capalbi M; Tamburelli F; Angelini L; Cusumano G; Bräuninger HW; Burkert W; Hartner GD (Oct 2005). "The Swift X-ray Telescope". Space Sci Rev. 120 (3–4): 165–95. arXiv:astro-ph/0508071  . Bibcode:2005SSRv..120..165B. doi:10.1007/s11214-005-5097-2.
Jump up ^ Hoover, R. B.; Walker II, A. B. C.; Lindblom, J. F.; Allen, M. J.; O'Neal, R. H.; DeForest, C. E.; Barbee, T. W., Jr. (1992). "Solar observations with the multispectral solar telescope array". In Hoover, Richard B. Proc. SPIE, Multilayer and Grazing Incidence X-Ray/EUV Optics. Multilayer and Grazing Incidence X-Ray/EUV Optics. 1546. p. 175. doi:10.1117/12.51232.
External links[edit]
Kamijo N; et al. (May 2002). "Hard X-ray microbeam experiments with a sputtered-sliced Fresnel zone plate and its applications". J Synchrotron Radiat. 9 (Pt 3): 182–6. doi:10.1107/S090904950200376X. PMID 11972376. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Scientific applications of soft x-ray microscopy
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Arabic definite article
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Al-" redirects here. For other uses, see AL (disambiguation).
This article deals with the use of the definite article in Literary Arabic, which slightly differs from varieties of Arabic.
Al- is not a permanent component of words, as shown here with al-Baḥrayn (or el-Baḥrēn), the Arabic for Bahrain.
Al- (Arabic: ال, also transliterated as el- as pronounced in varieties of Arabic) is the definite article in the Arabic language: a particle (ḥarf) whose function is to render the noun on which it is prefixed definite. For example, the word كتاب kitāb "book" can be made definite by prefixing it with al-, resulting in الكتاب al-kitāb "the book". Consequently, al- is typically translated as the in English.
Unlike most other particles in Arabic, al- is always prefixed to another word and it never stands alone. Consequently, most dictionaries will not list it as a separate word, and it is almost invariably ignored in collation. Similarly, al- is not a permanent component of the word to which it is prefixed. It is added and removed to toggle between the definiteness and indefiniteness of the word.
As a particle, al- does not inflect for gender, plurality or grammatical case. The sound of the final -l consonant, however, can vary; when followed by a sun letter such as t, d, r, s, n and a few others, it is replaced by the sound of the initial consonant of the following noun, thus doubling it. For example: for "the Nile", one does not say al-Nīl, but an-Nīl. When followed by a moon letter, like m-, no replacement occurs, as in al-masjid ("the mosque"). This affects only the pronunciation and not the spelling of the article.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Etymology
2.1 Proto-Semitic particle hypothesis
2.2 Arabic lā hypothesis
2.3 Arabic la hypothesis
3 Phonology
3.1 The hamza in al-
3.2 The lām in al-
3.3 The vowels in al-
3.4 Separating al- from its host word
4 Lexicology
4.1 Definiteness
4.2 Class nouns
4.3 Encompassing a genus
4.4 Indicating presence
4.5 At the beginning of names
4.6 Extra
4.7 Miscellaneous
5 Grammar
5.1 At the beginning of particles (ḥarf) and verbs (fi‘l)
5.2 At the beginning of nouns (ism)
5.2.1 Prohibited prefixation
5.2.1.1 Nouns that do not inflect for definiteness
5.2.1.2 Already definite nouns
5.2.1.3 The genitival construction (iḍāfa)
5.2.1.4 Vocation
5.2.1.5 Nunation (tanwīn)
5.2.2 Necessary prefixation
5.2.3 Al- on numbers
5.2.4 Al- on participles
5.2.5 Effects of al- on grammatical case
5.2.6 Allah
6 In other languages
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Overview[edit]
To put al- into perspective, there are many ways in which Arabic words can be made definite. These include the use of personal pronouns like "me", the use of proper nouns like "Saudi Arabia", demonstrative pronouns like "this man", relative pronouns like "the man who ...", vocation like "O man", possession like "my man", and of course the definite article like "the man".[1] Apart from possession, prefixing a noun with al- is the weakest form of definiteness.[1] That is, saying "the man" does not define the man being referred to as clearly as saying "this man", for example.
Arabic has an indefinite article indicated by nunation (tanwīn) which is declined for three cases.
Etymology[edit]
The etymology of al- is the study of how it developed and how it changed over time. There are several major opinions in regards to the origins of the Arabic definite article. The earliest evidence of the article, besides a 1st-century BC inscription in Qaryat al-Faw (formerly Qaryat Dhat Kahil, near Sulayyil, Saudi Arabia),[2][3][4] occurs in the 5th century BC, in the epithet of a goddess which Herodotus (Histories I: 131, III: 8) quotes in its preclassical Arabic form as Alilat (Ἀλιλάτ, i. e.,ʼal-ʼilat), which means "the goddess".[5]
Proto-Semitic particle hypothesis[edit]
While the Proto-Semitic language did not have any articles,[6][7] the most likely theory is that the article al- comes from the same proto-Semitic source as the Hebrew definite article ה־ ha-.[8] That theory is based primarily on the fact that the two share many similarities. Both particles are prefixed to nouns, and both geminate with certain following letters.[8] Moreover, neither particle is prefixed to non-final nouns in a genitival construction.[8] Finally, both are prefixed to relative clauses.[8] According to David Testen, many northern and southwestern Semitic languages have particles that bear similarities to al-.[8] With this fact, he posits that al- has a proto-Semitic antecedent.
There are three major possibilities regarding the form of the proto-Semitic particle that is the putative antecedent of al-:[9]
hal;
ha;
‘a;
David Testen and Jacob Weingreen state that هل۔/הל־ hal is the correct antecedent.
Often cited is the Arabic word for 'this', هذا hādhā, which, when combined with a definite phrase, has been known to become shortened from هذا البيت hādhā al-bayt (this house) to هلبيت hal-bayt. However, hal-bayt may merely be a shortening of the demonstrative pronoun.
Weingreen also states that the original form of the Hebrew ha- was in fact hal.[10] Hebrew, then, dropped the final l to achieve ha- while Arabic softened the h- to a hamza, resulting in al-.[9] However, there is no evidence supporting the existence of hal from ancient Hebrew texts. In fact, as early as the 6th century BC both han (a probable predecessor of the Hebrew ha) and al were being used simultaneously in different Arabic dialects, namely Northern and Central.
The Arabic word hādhā is equivalent to the Hebrew word זה zé. It appears that over time Hebrew shortened the demonstrative pronoun hazé (eikh korím layéled hazé? or What's this boy's name?) to simply zé. That indicates that the Hebrew ha- was the accurate retention of the original proto-Semitic source, as opposed to al-, which cannot conclusively be linked to the ancient cognate demonstrative pronoun hādhā/hazé.
Arabic lā hypothesis[edit]
According to Jacob Barth, who was lecturer in Hebrew at the Hildesheimer Rabbinical Seminary, al- comes directly from the Arabic negating particle, لا lā.[11] He conjectures that lā became al- through a process of metathesis. That is to say, the lām and the alif swapped positions. It is noteworthy that the negation denoted by lā and the definiteness denoted by al- are in stark contrast to each other.
Barth also asserts that lā could have resulted in al- through a process of syncope so the alif in lā and the vowel over the lām were dropped, resulting in a sukūn (an Arabic diacritic) over the lām, and a volatile or elidable hamza was added to compensate for that.
David Testen argues against both of these explanations. He says that there is no corroboratory evidence for either metathesis or syncope.
Arabic la hypothesis[edit]
It is possible that al- comes from the same root as the asseverative-cum-precative particle, لـَ la-; it is the la- used at the beginning of nominal sentences for emphasis.[12]
Phonology[edit]
See also: Arabic nouns and adjectives § Article
The phonology of al- is the study of its constituent letters and vowels, and of its pronunciation in different dialects and in different lexical circumstances.
The hamza in al-[edit]
A classical (and largely one-sided) debate in regards to al- is whether the hamza is volatile or not. The majority opinion is that of Sibawayh (d. ca. 797), who considers the hamza volatile.[13][14][15] In his opinion, the hamza neither is part of al- nor contributes to the definiteness of the following word.
Khalīl, Ibn Keisān and Akhfash, on the other hand, consider the hamza not to be volatile.[13][15] There is a further debate among the proponents of the second theory. Some do not consider the hamza volatile and assert that it contributes to the definiteness of the following word. Others assert that the hamza contributes to the definiteness of the following word but is still volatile.[13]
In his defence, Khalīl argues that when a word prefixed with al- is preceded by the interrogative hamza, the two hamzas mix.[16] For example, when the word الآن al-āna (now) is prefixed with it, the result is آلآن āl-āna. Clearly, the hamza of al- does not drop in this case even though there is no further purpose for it.
Khalīl further argues that the only reason the hamza in al- is ever dropped is not that it is volatile but that it is used too much. When asked why the lām in al- was not simply given a vowel if it is so heavily used and it needs to be easier to pronounce, followers of Khalīl said that if the lām had been given a fatḥa, it would have been confused with the asseverative-cum-precative particle.[17] Had it been given a kasra, it would have been confused with the genitival particle.[17] It could not have been given a ḍamma for fear of the following vowel being a kasra or ḍamma (which would result in awkward pronunciations as in لإبل *lu-ibil or لعنق *lu-‘unuq).[18]
Despite the myriad of proofs for the argument, in most classical grammars and in modern Arabic, the opinion of Sibawayh is often taken as an axiomatic fact.[19] There are many proofs and counterproofs, but the overarching argument in favour of this opinion is as follows:
The lām in al- is the only lām particle in the language with a sukūn (to avoid confusion, as mentioned). Thus, it requires a volatile hamza.[19] Moreover, al- is a particle, and Arabic particles do not drop letters (without losing their meanings or connotations). Yet the hamza in al- drops all the time. Therefore, it must be volatile, or al- would lose its ability to render the following word definite.[18]
Consequently, it turns out that the hamza in al- is considered the only volatile hamza in the language that has a fatḥa vowel.
The lām in al-[edit]
Main article: Sun and moon letters
In very early Semitic languages, definiteness was achieved through gemination of the first letter in a word.[20] For example, the word kitāb would be made definite by ak-kitāb. An additional benefit of this construction was to connote "determination".[21] The lām in the Arabic al- was thus a result of a dissimilation process.[22]
In Arabic, this gemination occurs when the word to which al- is prefixed begins with one of the fourteen sun letters.[23] Twelve of these letters (including lām) are originally designed to geminate. Ḍād and shīn have been included due to their similarities in pronunciation with lām and ţā, respectively.[24] For example, the word الرجل al-rajul 'the man' is actually pronounced "ar-rajul". Notice that the lām is written but not pronounced.
In more modern dialects, the sun letters have been extended to include the velars gīm and kāf.[25]
The ancient tribe of Banū Hamīr replace the lām in al- with mīm. The Prophet Muhammad is recorded to have uttered the following words in that dialect:[26]
لَيْسَ مِن امْبِرِّ امْصِيامُ في امْسَفَرِ
Laysa min am-birr-i am-ṣiyām-u fī am-safar-i
Also, there exists a negative form for the word Mā (ما النافية). This Mā is a particle used to negate the perfect (past tense) verb. It almost invariably comes before such verbs. This Mā is sometimes followed by an imperfect verb. This has minor rhetorical considerations and is somewhat rare. Therefore, in most cases, one can interchangeably use Lā and Mā to convey negativness.[27]
Finally, in some Semitic languages like Hebrew, words that include the letter lāmed have Arabic cognates that replace it with a Mīm as opposed to Lām, the equivalent letter. For example, skull in Hebrew is גֻּלְגֹּלֶת (gulgolet). It's Arabic cognate is جمجمة (jumjúmah). This gives plausibility to the case of Banu Hamīr and indicates that lām is frequently equated with Mīm.
The vowels in al-[edit]
Regardless of whether the hamza in al- is volatile or not, it is read with a fatḥa when beginning speech with the definite article. For example, if one vocalizes the word البيت 'the house' after a pause, it will be pronounced "al-bayt". In fact, the hamza in al- is largely considered to be the only volatile hamza that has a fatḥa vowel.
If, however, al- is vocalized in the middle of speech, the hamza will be dropped in pronunciation. As a result, the vowel preceding the definite article will be linked to the lām of al-. For example, بابُ البيت (vocalized without any pauses) is pronounced "bābu l-bayt", بابَ البيت is pronounced "bāba l-bayt", and بابِ البيت is pronounced "bābi l-bayt".
If the word onto which al- is prefixed starts with a hamza, the vowel from that hamza may transfer to the lām of al- after which the hamza not be pronounced.[28] See Allah in "Arabic definite article" for an example. If this hamza is volatile, that is required. An example is in the phrase بِئْشَ الإسْمُ bi’sa al-ismu. The phrase is read as بِئْشَ الاِسْمُ "bi’sa lismu" (Qur'an 49:11). The rule relates to hamza and is not in direct relation to al-. Moreover, it is a rare occurrence and is almost never applied in spoken varieties of modern or classical Arabic.
Separating al- from its host word[edit]
Al- has been recorded to separate from its host word as in the following couplet:[29]
دَعْ ذا وَعَجِّلْ ذا وَأَلْحِقْنا بِذالْ – بِالشَحْمِ إِنّا قَدْ مَلِلْناهُ بَجَلْ
The al- in بذال has been recorded both with and without the alif. It has been stripped from its host word شحم because of the meter of the couplet. It has then been repeated in the second half of the couplet reattached to its host.[29] This happened very rarely and, even then, has been recorded only in poetry.
Lexicology[edit]
Definiteness[edit]
The primary and most profuse function of al- is to render the following word definite. This is known as تعريف العهد. This function is of two types:[30]
ذكري: when the word being referred to has already been mentioned. An example is found in the word messenger in "We had sent to Pharaoh a messenger. But Pharaoh disobeyed the messenger..." (Qur'an 73:15-6).
ذهني: when the word being referred to is understood by the listener. An example is found in the word battle in "The battle is getting worse; I think we should retreat."
There is also a special type of ذهني known as "the al- for غلبة”. The noun on which the al- is prefixed, in this case, is never explicitly mentioned but the listener knows what is being referred to.[31] For example, the word الكتاب al-kitāb (the book) may actually refer to the classical book of Arabic grammar written by Sibawayh. Whenever grammarians talk about "the book", this is what they mean and it is always understood without explanation.
Class nouns[edit]
One of the functions of al- is to render the noun onto which it is prefixed a class noun.[32][33] For example, the word الأسد “al-asad” can mean ‘the lion’, referring to a specific lion, or ‘the lion’ in the sense ‘the lion is a dangerous animal’.
Notice that the meaning connoted by this function of al- is indefinite, which is in stark contrast with the primary function of the definite article. Because of this meaning, the noun following al- will be grammatically indefinite and one may, for example, modify the noun without the use of a relative pronoun.[32][33] An example of this is seen in the following couplet of poetry:
وَلَقَدْ أَمُرُّ عَلى اللَئيمِ يَسُبُّني – فَمَضَيْتُ ثُمَّتَ قُلْتُ لا يَعْنيني
Encompassing a genus[edit]
Al- may be used to encompass all the individuals of a genus.[33] For example, الأسد “al-asad” can be used to mean ‘all lions’. This function is called استغراق. One is encouraged to use caution when employing this form of al- as it may be confused with its other meanings.
In order for al- to be in this capacity, it is necessary that it be interchangeable with the word كل kull 'all'.[32] Some classical grammarians assert that this kull may be figurative, in which case al-, in this capacity, would be a form of exaggeration.[34]
The most well known use of al- in this meaning occurs twice in the Qur'anic verse 1:1, الحمد لله رب العالمين (all praise is due to Allah, lord of all the worlds).
Indicating presence[edit]
Al- is often used in words to indicate the presence of something.[35] For example, اليوم “al-yawm” means ‘this day’ i.e. ‘today’. In modern Arabic, this function is largely idiomatic and does not carry over to new words.
At the beginning of names[edit]
Al- may be prefixed to names that are derived from Arabic nouns. This function is known as لمح الصفة. The purpose of doing this is to point toward the meaning of the one named.[36] For example, the name عادل ‘Adīl (meaning 'just') may be read العادل "al-‘Adīl" to allude to the fact that ‘Adīl is a just person.
In modern Arabic, however, this type of al- is largely idiomatic. That is to say, names traditionally prefixed with al- are kept as such and names without al- are also kept as such; the connotation of this al- is ignored.
When it comes to alphabetic ordering, some sources will list names according to the al- while others will ignore it.
Extra[edit]
Al- is sometimes prefixed to words without giving any grammatical benefit. This may occur in poetry, in which case the purpose may be to maintain metre, rhythm, or rhyme.
It may also occur elsewhere to give a rhetorical benefit. For example, the al- attached to the relative pronoun الذي al-ladhī (that/which/etc) is considered to be extra, because relative pronouns are already definite and there is no use for the al-.[37] Al- is perpetually and necessarily attached to this word in most Arabic dialects.[38] Thus its purpose is not a lexical or grammatical one, but a rhetorical one.
In the above example, the extra al- is necessary. There are other cases where it is extra but not necessary. An example is in the following phrase:[39]
ادخلوا الأول فالأول
The word أول “awwal” (first) is considered حال “ḥāl” (a type of object in grammar) in the above phrase. This type of object is typically indefinite according to most classical and modern grammarians.[39] So the al- attached to it is unnecessarily extra.
Miscellaneous[edit]
Jamīl Shāmi asserts that there is a type of al- that connotes the essence of something.[35] For example, "And we made from water every living thing ..." (Qur'an 21:30) can be translated as "And we made from the essence of water (i.e., from the compound H2O) every living thing ..."
Shāmi also cites a usage of al- as an interrogative particle.[40] For example, ال فعلت al fa‘alta (did you do it?). Notice that the al- stands alone and un-prefixed here.
Grammar[edit]
At the beginning of particles (ḥarf) and verbs (fi‘l)[edit]
Al- is a particle (ḥarf)[34][41][42] in the Arabic language. Like most (but not all) particles, it is not prefixed to other particles. That is because particles are never in need of any of the lexical meanings or grammatical inflections provided by al-.
Similarly, al- is not prefixed to verbs. However, it has been seen on verbs in poetry, as in the following couplets[43] by Dhu al-Kharq al-Tahawi (ذو الخرق الطهوي):
يقول الخَنى وأبغَضُ العُجْمِ ناطقا – الى ربنا موتُ الحِمارِ اليُجَدّعُ
ويَستخرج اليَرْبوعَ مِن نافِقائِه – ومِن جُحْرِه بالشيحَةِ اليَتقصّعُ
Several opinions exist to explain this aberrant al-. The following is a precis of different Arabic scholars' views as given in Khizanat al-Adab. One view is that al- is a relative pronoun here, similar to alladhī (الذي), allatī (التي), etc. in Arabic. This is the view of Ibn Hisham and Al-Akhfash al-Akbar.[44] This opinion is in harmony with the form of the general relative pronoun (alli, illi, al) in most Arabic dialects nowadays. If this view is correct, this aberrant al- does not follow the sun and moon letters rule.
Al- may also be used to turn verbs in the imperfect, passive state into adjectives in a limited set of circumstances.[45] This is employed to show ability/possibility, or with the use of another particle ("-la-"), inability/impossibility as is related to the definite word the resulting adjective modifies. Examples: Al-yurā : the see-able; al-yu'kal : the edible; al-la-yurā : the un-see-able; al-la-silkī : the wire-less [device]; etc.
When al- occurs in places where we would not normally expect it, it is considered extra as far as grammar and lexicology are concerned. This is the view of al-Kisā’ī.[44]
Al- is used by poets to complete the meter of the verse under poetic license. This is the view of Ibn Malik, the author of the Alfiyyah; it is rejected by the author of the Khizānat al-Adab.[44]
At the beginning of nouns (ism)[edit]
The terms noun and ism have been used synonymously in this section
Because nouns require the functions provided by al- (namely definiteness), al- is prefixed to them. Ism, as defined in classical Arabic grammar, includes all parts of speech save particles and verbs: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc.
As a general rule, al- may be prefixed to any ism, regardless of gender, plurality, grammatical case, etc. However, this rule has some pathological caveats. That is, there are some nouns that al- may never be prefixed to, and there are others that al- must always be prefixed to.
Prohibited prefixation[edit]
Nouns that do not inflect for definiteness[edit]
The definite article al- is not typically prefixed to nouns that do not inflect for definiteness. Examples include the interrogative مَن man 'who'.
Already definite nouns[edit]
The definite article al- is not typically prefixed to nouns that are already definite.[46] Examples include personal pronouns, relative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, nouns already prefixed with al-, etc.
Exceptions to this include the prefixation of al- to the relative pronoun الذي (see #Extra) and to proper nouns (see #At the beginning of names). As a concrete example, al- has been recorded at the beginning of a demonstrative pronoun, as in the following poetic verse:[47]
فإن الأولاء يعلمونكَ مِنهمُ
The genitival construction (iḍāfa)[edit]
Al- is not prefixed to non-final nouns in a genitival construction (Iḍāfa).[48] For example, in شوارع المدينة shawāri‘ al-madīna” (the city’s streets), the word شوارع is a non-final noun in the genitival construction. Hence, it cannot be prefixed with al- (it is already definite by virtue of the construction).
Exceptions to this include genitival constructions where the first noun is a participle and the second noun is its object.[49] This can be done if one of the following conditions is met.[49]
the first noun is dual; e.g. الضاربا زيد
the first noun is sound masculine plural; e.g. الضاربو زيد
the second noun also has al-; e.g. الضارب الرجل
the second noun is the first noun of another genitival construction, and the second noun in this other construction has al-; e.g. الضارب رأسِ الرجلِ
the second noun is suffixed to a pronoun which refers to a noun that has al-; e.g. مررتُ بالرجل الضاربِ غلامِه
Al- has also been seen in poetic verses prefixed to non-final nouns in a genitival construction. An example is in the following couplet:[40]
مِن القوم الرسولُ الله منهم – لهم دانَتْ رِقابُ بني مَعَدٍّ
Furthermore, the grammatical school of Kufa allows al- on the first noun in a genitival construction if it is a number.[50] For example, the phrase ثلاثة اقلام “thalāthat aqlām” (three pens) may be read الثلاثة اقلام “al-thalāthat aqlām”.
Vocation[edit]
According to the Basra school of classical grammar, al- does not typically follow the particles of vocation.[51] For example, one will not say يا الرجل “yā ar-rajul” (O the man).
The proponents of the Basra camp give two exceptions.
the word “Allah”; one may say يا الله “yā Allah” (O God) with or without pronouncing the hamza in “Allah”.[51]
direct quotation; one may say, for example, يا الحسن “yā al-Ḥasan” (O al-Hasan) to someone named al-Hasan.[51]
However, the Kufa camp of classical grammar, as well as many modern grammarians, allow al- to be prefixed to the object of vocation almost unconditionally.[52] An example is given in the following couplet of poetry:[53]
مِن أجْلِكِ يا التي تَيَّمْتِ قلبي – وأنتِ بحيلةٌ بالوُدِّ عَنّي
Under this scheme, if the object of vocation is a single word and it is feminine, the particle of vocation will be followed by the particle ايتها ayyatuhā. And if it is masculine, it will be followed by the particle ايها ayyuhā.[53]
Nunation (tanwīn)[edit]
According to the classical grammarians Farrā and Kasā’ī, the overarching purpose of nunation is to differentiate between nouns and verbs.[54] Thus a noun is given nunation so that it won’t be confused with a verb; for example the name جعفر would have been confused with a quatralateral verb had it not been for nunation. Additionally, we know that al- is not prefixed to verbs. Therefore, when al- is prefixed to a noun, there is no longer any danger of the noun being confused with a verb, and so the nunation is no longer needed. Hence, no noun has both al- and nunation simultaneously.[54]
However, there are some types of nunation whose purpose is not to differentiate between nouns and verbs. Such types include تنوين ترنم (a type of nunation converted from an alif at the end of poetic couplets) and تنوين غالي (a type of nunation used to maintain the metre of a poem).
An example of the first type in conjunction with al- is found in the following couplet of poetry:[55]
أقِلّي اللَومَ عاذِلَ والعِتابَن – وقُولي إنْ أصَبْتُ لقد أصابَنْ
And an example of the second type in conjunction with al- is found in the verse below:[56]
وقاتِمِ الأعْماقِ خاوي المُخْتَرَقْنْ
Necessary prefixation[edit]
There are some nouns that are invariably seen with al-. Examples include the relative pronoun الذي al-ladhī (that/which/etc).[37]
Al- on numbers[edit]
Al- may be prefixed to the first part of a number between 11 and 19.[57] For example, احد عشر aḥada ‘ashar (eleven) may be read as الاحد عشر "al-aḥada ‘ashar".
In the case of a compound number (21-29, 31-39, ..., 91-99), al- may be prefixed to both parts. For example, واحد وعشرون wāḥid wa-‘ishrūn” (twenty-one) may be read as الواحد والعشرون "al-wāḥid wa-al-‘ishrūn".[57]
Al- on participles[edit]
When al- is prefixed to a participle, it acts like a relative pronoun.[58] For the purposes of this rule, participles include اسم فاعل (the active participle), اسم مفعول (the passive participle), الصفة المشبهة (another participle in Arabic), etc. For example, مررت بالراكب خيله. This is translated as “I passed by the man who was riding his steed” as opposed to something like “I passed by the rider of his steed.” Consequently, all the rules of Arabic relative pronouns and their clauses will apply here.
It is widely accepted in Arabic grammar that a participle can carry tense. This tense, however, is typically limited to the present and future. But when we use the above construction, the past can be connoted by the participle as well due to the nature of relative clauses. For example, one may say مررت بالراكب خيله أمس (I passed by the man who was riding his steed yesterday).
Some grammarians, however, say that it is only the past that can be connoted in this construction; the option of connoting the present and future is no longer available. And others say that no tense at all can be connoted.[59]
Effects of al- on grammatical case[edit]
Al- has very few contributions to the grammatical case of a noun. However, it is worth mentioning that it turns second-declension nouns (ghayr munṣarif) into first declension nouns by allowing the kasra vowel.[60][61]
Moreover, al- brings back the ي letter in an ism manqūṣ that is in the nominative or genitive case. Without the al-, the ي in such nouns is omitted and replaced by nunation.
Allah[edit]
Of special interest is the origin of the word Allah. Scholars propose that this derives from the word الإله al-ʾilāh "the god", where ʾilāh "god" is related to Hebrew ʾeloah "god". The hamza dropped from writing (see #The vowels in al-), resulting in الِلـه alilāh, though it is still pronounced.[clarification needed] Then the vowel i dropped, producing الّه allāh; the resulting /l/ became emphatic out of reverence for the name of God; the result is written الله.
In other languages[edit]
See also: Arabic language influence on the Spanish language, List of Portuguese words of Arabic origin, and List of English words of Arabic origin
The article was borrowed along with a large number of Arabic nouns into the Iberian Romance languages. (See Al-Andalus.) Portuguese, for example, acquired some 1,200 Arabic words between the 9th and 13th centuries, such as aldeia "village" (from الضيعة alḍaiʿa), alface "lettuce" (from الخس alxas), armazém "warehouse" (from المخزن almaxzan), and azeite "olive oil" (from الزيت azzait). It even appears on non-Arabic vocabulary, such as enxofre "sulfur" (also xofre, from late classical Latin sulfur; the prefix nasalizes before x).[62] Spanish has a similar inventory, such as alfombra "carpet" and algodón "cotton", including such Arabic–Latinate doublets as aceituna and oliva "olive", alacrán and escorpión "scorpion", alcancía and hucha "piggy bank", as well as azufre ~ zufre "sulfur".
Whether through the Iberian languages or by other routes, such as the technical vocabulary borrowed by various European languages during the adoption of Arab mathematics and science, a number of English words contain the Arabic definite article. These include alcove, alcohol, albatross, alfalfa, algebra, algorithm, alchemy, alkaline, alembic, elixir, artichoke, acequia, adobe, aniline, apricot, aubergine, azimuth, and the names of stars such as Algol.
In azure, from لازورد lāzūard, the initial l of the word was lost due to being mistaken as the Arabic article; it is retained in lazurite and in the compound lapis lazuli. In lute, form العود al-ʿūd, the a of the article was dropped, but the l retained; compare oud. In admiral, the article comes at the end, as it is an abbreviation of such phrases as amīr-al-mā "commander of the water" and amīr-al-bahr "commander of the sea".
The al- article is also used in Urdu mostly relating to personal names of Arabic origin and in words which are imported from Arabic mostly related to religious, administrative and scientific vocabulary . The most common al- words in Urdu are بالکل(bil-kul) meaning "exactly" and فی الحال (fil-hal) meaning "currently".
See also[edit]
Arabic grammar
Arabic phonology
Grammatical particle
Influence of Arabic on other languages
Sun and moon letters
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Ibn Hishām (2001), pp. 159–190
Jump up ^ Woodard (2008), p. 180
Jump up ^ Macdonald (2000), pp. 50, 61
Jump up ^ http://www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Inscriptions/faw.html
Jump up ^ Woodard (2008), p. 208
Jump up ^ https://www.academia.edu/202934/The_Development_of_the_Definite_Article_in_Semitic_A_Syntactic_Approach
Jump up ^ https://www.academia.edu/11080253/Definite_Articles_in_Semitic_with_a_focus_on_Central_Semitic_
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Testen (1998), pp. 139–140
^ Jump up to: a b Testen (1998), p. 140
Jump up ^ Weingreen (1967), p. 23
Jump up ^ Testen (1998), p. 138
Jump up ^ Testen (1998), p. 165
^ Jump up to: a b c Ibn Hishām (2001), p. 186
Jump up ^ ‘Abd Allāh ibn ‘Aqīl (1998), v. 1 p. 177
^ Jump up to: a b Jamīl Shāmi (1992), p. 102
Jump up ^ Sībawayh (1999), v. 3 p. 358
^ Jump up to: a b Muḥyī al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Ḥamīd (1998), v. 1 p. 177–178
^ Jump up to: a b Zajjājī (1984), p. 20
^ Jump up to: a b Zajjājī (1984), pp. 19–20
Jump up ^ Testen (1998), p. 150
Jump up ^ Testen (1998), p. 148
Jump up ^ Testen (1998), p. 144
Jump up ^ Testen (1998), p. 137
Jump up ^ Sībawayh (1999), v. 4 p. 590–591
Jump up ^ Testen (1998), p. 145
Jump up ^ Ibn Hishām (2001), p. 189
Jump up ^ http://www.learnarabiconline.com/types-of-maa.shtml
Jump up ^ Zajjājī (1984), pp. 46–47
^ Jump up to: a b Sībawayh (1999), v. 3 p. 359
Jump up ^ Ibn Hishām (2001), p. 186f
Jump up ^ ‘Abd Allāh ibn ‘Aqīl (1998), v. 1 p. 186
^ Jump up to: a b c ‘Abd Allāh ibn ‘Aqīl (1998), v. 1 p. 178
^ Jump up to: a b c Ibn Hishām (2001), p. 186ff
^ Jump up to: a b Jamīl Shāmi (1992), p. 103
^ Jump up to: a b Jamīl Shāmi (1992), p. 104
Jump up ^ ‘Abd Allāh ibn ‘Aqīl (1998), v. 1 p. 184–185
^ Jump up to: a b ‘Abd Allāh ibn ‘Aqīl (1998), v. 1 p. 180
Jump up ^ Jamīl Shāmi (1992), p. 105
^ Jump up to: a b Muḥyī al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Ḥamīd (1998), v. 1 p. 183
^ Jump up to: a b Jamīl Shāmi (1992), p. 107
Jump up ^ Sībawayh (1999), v. 4 p. 259
Jump up ^ Ibn Mālik, v. 1 p. 177
Jump up ^ Anbari, p. 316
^ Jump up to: a b c خزانة الأدب-عبد القادر البغدادي
Jump up ^ Al-mu‘jam Ul-waṣīt, rev. 3, vol. 1, p. 23, entry: ("Al-أل")
Jump up ^ Owens, p. 129
Jump up ^ Anbari, p. 321
Jump up ^ ‘Abd Allāh ibn ‘Aqīl (1998), v. 2 p. 47
^ Jump up to: a b Ibn Hishām (2001), p. 379
Jump up ^ Hasan, v. 1 p. 438
^ Jump up to: a b c ‘Abd Allāh ibn ‘Aqīl (1998), v. 2 p. 263–265
Jump up ^ Anbari, p. 335-9
^ Jump up to: a b Zajjājī (1984), pp. 32–35
^ Jump up to: a b Zajjājī (1984), p. 31
Jump up ^ ‘Abd Allāh ibn ‘Aqīl (1998), v. 1 p. 20
Jump up ^ ‘Abd Allāh ibn ‘Aqīl (1998), v. 1 p. 18
^ Jump up to: a b Hasan, v. 1 p. 439
Jump up ^ Ibn Hishām (2001), p. 171
Jump up ^ ‘Abd Allāh ibn ‘Aqīl (1998), v. 2 p. 110
Jump up ^ Ibn Hājib, p. 12
Jump up ^ Ibn Hishām (2001), p. 103
Jump up ^ "sulfur". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
References[edit]
Abu ‘Alī al-Fārisī, al-Hasan ibn Aḥmad (d. 987) (2004). al-Masā’il al-Manthūrah. Oman: Dār ‘Umān lil-Nashr wa-al-Tawzī‘.
Asmar, Rājī (2005). Mu‘jam al-Adawāt fī al-Qur’ān al-Karīm. Beirut: Dār al-Jīl.
‘Aţā, Diyāb ‘Abd al-Jawwād (1985). Ḥurūf al-Ma‘ānī wa-‘Alāqatuhā bi-al-Ḥukm al-shar‘ī. Cairo: Dār al-Manār.
‘Abd Allāh ibn ‘Aqīl, Bahā al-Dīn (d. 1367) (1998). Sharḥ Ibn ‘Aqīl ‘alā Alfiyyat Ibn Mālik. See Muḥyī al-Dīn.
Baytüshi, Abdullah ibn Muhammad (2005). Kifāyat al-Mu‘ānī fī ḥurūf al-Ma‘ānī. Damascus: Dār al-Iqrā.
Ḥasan, ‘Abbās. al-Nahw al-Wāfī (3rd ed.). Cairo: Dār al-Ma‘ārif.
Hopkins, Simon (1984). Studies in the Grammar of Early Arabic Based upon Papyri Datable to Before 300 A.H./912 A.D. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ibn al-Anbari, ‘Abd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad (d. 1181) (1961). al-Inṣāf fi Masa’il al-Khilāf. Cairo: al-Maktabah al-Tijārīyah al-Kubrā.
Ibn Ḥājib, ‘Uthmān ibn ‘Umar (d. 1249) (2000). Kāfiya. Karachi: Qadeem Kutub Khaana.
Ibn Hishām, Abu Muhammad ‘Abd al-Malik (d. 833) (2001). Sabīl al-Hudā ‘alā Sharh Qaţr al-Nadā wa-Ball a;-Ṣadā. Damascus: Maktab Dār al-Fajr.
Ibn Mālik, Abu ‘Abd Allāh Muḥammad Jamāl al-Dīn ibn ‘Abd Allāh (d. 1273). al-Khulāṣa. See Muḥyī al-Dīn.
Ibn al-Sarrāj, Muḥammad ibn al-Sarī (d. 929) (1985). al-Uṣūl fī al-Nahw. Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Risālah.
Irbillī, ‘Alī ibn Muhammad (d. 1340) (1991). Jawāhir al-Adab fī Ma‘rifat Kalām al-‘Arab. Beirut: Dār An-Nafā’is.
Jamīl Shāmi, Aḥmad (1992). Mu‘jam Ḥurūf al-Ma‘āni. Beirut: Mu’assasat ‘Izz al-Dīn.
Macdonald, M. C. A. (2000). "Reflections on the linguistic map of pre-Islamic Arabia" (PDF). Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy. 11: 28–79.
Mubarrad, Muḥammad ibn Yazīd (d. 898) (1999). al-Muqtadab. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmīyah.
Muḥyī al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Ḥamīd, Muḥammad (d. 898) (1998). Sharh Ibn ‘Aqīl ‘alā Alfiyyat Ibn Mālik wa-ma‘ahu Kitāb Minḥat al-Jalīl bi-Taḥqīq Ibn ‘Aqīl. Cairo: Maktab al-Turāth.
Sakhāwī, ‘Alī ibn Muḥammad (d. 1245) (2002). al-Mufaḍḍal fī Sharh al-Mufaṣṣal: Bāb al-Ḥurūf. Oman: Wizārat al-Thaqāfah.
Sībawayh, ‘Amr ibn ‘Uthmān (d. 796) (1999). al-Kitāb. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmīyah.
Taftahzāni, Mas‘ūd ibn ‘Umar (d. 1389) (2000). Mukhtaṣar al-Ma‘ānī. Karachi: Qadeem Kutub Khaana.
Testen, David D. (1998). Parallels in Semitic Linguistics: the Development of Arabic La- and Related Semitic Particles. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004109730.
Weingreen, Jacob (1967). A Practical Grammar for Classical Hebrew (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Woodard, Roger D. (2008). Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521684989.
Zajjājī, ‘Abd al-Raḥman ibn Isḥāq (d. 950) (1984). Kitāb Ḥurūf al-Ma‘ānī. Beirut: Mu’assasat al--Risālah.
Kitāb al-Lāmāt. Damascus: Majma‘ al-Lughah al-‘Arabīyah.
Zamakhsharī, Maḥmūd ibn ‘Umar (d. 1144). al-Mufaṣṣal fī ‘Ilm al-‘Arabīyah. See Sakhāwī.
External links[edit]
Look up ال in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
What's Up With "Al-"? at Slate
"Al". The American Cyclopædia. 1879.
"Al". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
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