text:
Fehling's solution
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Fehling's test
Fehling's test,
Left side negative, right side positive
Classification
Colorimetric method
Analytes
Monosaccharides
Fehling's solution is a chemical reagent used to differentiate between water-soluble carbohydrate and ketone functional groups, and as a test for reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars, supplementary to the Tollens' reagent test. The test was developed by German chemist Hermann von Fehling in 1849.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Laboratory preparation
2 Use of the reagent
3 Net reaction
4 Safety
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Laboratory preparation[edit]
Fehling's solution is prepared by combining two separate solutions, known as Fehling's A and Fehling's B. Fehling's A is aqueous solution of copper(II) sulfate, which is deep blue. Fehling's B is a colorless solution of aqueous Potassium sodium tartrate (also known as Rochelle salt) made in a strong alkali, commonly with sodium hydroxide. Typically, the L-tartrate salt is used. The copper(II) complex in Fehling's solution is an oxidizing agent and the active reagent in the test.
The deep blue active ingredient in Fehling's solution is the bis(tartrate) complex of Cu2+. The tartrate tetraanions serve as bidentate alkoxide ligands.[2]
Structure of the main complex in Fehling's solution.
Use of the reagent[edit]
Fehling's can be used to distinguish aldehyde vs ketone functional groups. The compound to be tested is added to the Fehling's solution and the mixture is heated. Aldehydes are oxidized, giving a positive result, but ketones do not react, unless they are alpha-hydroxy-ketones. The bistartratocuprate(II) complex oxidizes the aldehyde to a carboxylate anion, and in the process the copper(II) ions of the complex are reduced to copper(I) ions. Red copper(I) oxide then precipitates out of the reaction mixture, which indicates a positive result i.e. that redox has taken place (this is the same positive result as with Benedict's solution). A negative result is the absence of the red precipitate; it is important to note that Fehling's will not work with aromatic aldehydes; in this case Tollens' reagent should be used.[citation needed]
Fehling's test can be used as a generic test for monosaccharides and other reducing sugars (e.g., maltose). It will give a positive result for aldose monosaccharides (due to the oxidisable aldehyde group) but also for ketose monosaccharides, as they are converted to aldoses by the base in the reagent, and then give a positive result.[3]
Fehling's can be used to screen for glucose in urine, thus detecting diabetes. Another use is in the breakdown of starch to convert it to glucose syrup and maltodextrins in order to measure the amount of reducing sugar, thus revealing the dextrose equivalent (DE) of the starch sugar.
Formic acid (HCO2H) also gives a positive Fehling's test result, as it does with Tollens' test and Benedict's test also. The positive tests are consistent with it being readily oxidizable to carbon dioxide.
Net reaction[edit]
The net reaction between an aldehyde and the copper(II) ions in Fehling's solution may be written as:
RCHO + 2 Cu2+ + 5 OH− → RCOO− + Cu2O + 3 H2O
or with the tartrate included:
RCHO + 2 Cu(C4H4O6)22− + 5 OH− → RCOO− + Cu2O + 4 C4H4O62− + 3 H2O
Safety[edit]
Sodium hydroxide is corrosive.[3]
See also[edit]
Tollens' reagent
Benedict's reagent
Barfoed's test
References[edit]
Jump up ^ H. Fehling (1849). "Die quantitative Bestimmung von Zucker und Stärkmehl mittelst Kupfervitriol" [The quantitative determination of sugar and starch by means of copper sulfate]. Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. 72 (1): 106–113. doi:10.1002/jlac.18490720112.
Jump up ^ Hörner, T. G.; Klüfers, P., "The Species of Fehling's Solution", European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry 2016, 2016, 1798-1807. doi:10.1002/ejic.201600168
^ Jump up to: a b Fehling's Test for Reducing Sugars
External links[edit]
"Fehling's Solution". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.
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Here I Go Again
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the Whitesnake song. For other uses, see Here I Go Again (disambiguation).
"Here I Go Again"
Single by Whitesnake
from the album Saints & Sinners
B-side
"Bloody Luxury"
Released
15 November 1982
Format
7" single
Recorded
1982
Length
5:09
Label
Geffen
Songwriter(s)
David Coverdale
Bernie Marsden
Producer(s)
Martin Birch
Whitesnake singles chronology
"Would I Lie to You"
(1981) "Here I Go Again"
(1982) "Victim of Love"
(1982)
"Would I Lie to You"
(1981) "Here I Go Again"
(1982) "Victim of Love"
(1982)
"Here I Go Again"
Single by Whitesnake
from the album Whitesnake
B-side
"Guilty of Love"
Released
1987
Format
7", 10", 12"
Recorded
1985–1986
Genre
Glam metal
Length
4:36 (Album Version)
3:54 (Radio Edit Mix)
Label
Geffen
Songwriter(s)
David Coverdale, Bernie Marsden
Producer(s)
Mike Stone, Keith Olsen
Whitesnake singles chronology
"Crying in the Rain"
(1987) "Here I Go Again"
(1987) "Is This Love"
(1987)
"Crying in the Rain"
(1987) "Here I Go Again"
(1987) "Is This Love"
(1987)
"Here I Go Again" is a song by British rock band Whitesnake. Originally released on their 1982 album, Saints & Sinners, the power ballad[1] was re-recorded for their 1987 self-titled album. The song was re-recorded that year in a new "radio-mix" version, which was released as a single and hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on 10 October 1987, and number nine on the UK Singles Chart on 28 November 1987. The 1987 version also hit number one on the Canadian Singles Chart on 24 October 1987. In 2006, the 1987 version was ranked number 17 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of the '80s.[2]
Contents
1 Background and writing
2 Composition
3 Music video
4 Single versions
5 Personnel
5.1 Chart performance
6 Cover versions
7 References
Background and writing[edit]
The song was written by the lead singer, David Coverdale, and former Whitesnake guitarist, Bernie Marsden. The most notable difference between the original and re-recorded versions are a slight change in the lyrics and a different pace. The chorus of the original version features the lines:
And here I go again on my own
Goin' down the only road I've ever known
Like a hobo I was born to walk alone
In an interview, Coverdale explained that "hobo" was changed to "drifter" in the re-recorded version to ensure that it would not be misheard as "homo".[3]
Composition[edit]
The song is composed in the key of G major and a tempo of 91 BPM.[4]
Music video[edit]
The first music video was made for the original 1982 version. It starts with Coverdale sitting in a concert hall seat and singing the first verses. The video continues as a lip synced "live" video showing the 1982 line-up (Ian Paice who was drumming for the recording is replaced by Cozy Powell) of Whitesnake performing the song. This music video for this song presents David Coverdale with black hair.
The music video for the re-recorded version was directed by Marty Callner,[5] who directed most of Whitesnake's videos in the 1980s. In the video, actress Tawny Kitaen is seen posing on the hoods of two Jaguar XJs and seducing Coverdale while he is driving. Kitaen and Coverdale would later marry. This video presents David Coverdale with blonde hair.
Due to Coverdale firing the other members of the band before the album was released, he is the only Whitesnake member present on both the recording and in the music video (Along Adrian Vandenberg, who played the guitar solo on the recording); this was the case for all music videos released for songs from the 1987 album.[citation needed]
Single versions[edit]
There are several different versions of the song, all recorded officially by Whitesnake. They are:
The original version from the 1982 Saints & Sinners album with Jon Lord on Hammond organ and Bernie Marsden and Micky Moody on guitar (5:03)[6]
The re-recorded version that appears on the Whitesnake (aka 1987) album with John Sykes on guitar (solo by Adrian Vandenberg) (4:36)[citation needed]
A 1987 "radio-mix" version, which was released as a U.S. single with Denny Carmassi on drums and Dann Huff on guitar, who also provided the new arrangement. This version also appeared on the Greatest Hits album in 1994 (3:54)[citation needed]
A 1997 acoustic version recorded for the Starkers in Tokyo album with Adrian Vandenberg on guitar.[citation needed]
In 1987, EMI released a limited Collectors Poster Edition 'USA Single Remix' 7" vinyl [EMP 35], the B-side of which consists of an engraved signature version, and the sleeve of which unfolds into a poster of the band.[7]
While the 1987 album version and the radio version of the tune are fairly similar, there are several significant differences. The original 1987 version (the one used for the video) has a long and slow keyboard and vocal intro, whereas the other kicks straight in with the band. One was recorded for the album 1987, the other for a U.S single release the same year. They contain two very different guitar solos, Adrian Vandenberg plays the album and video solo, and Dann Huff plays on the radio edit version. The album version has a different rhythm in the chorus, with a syncopated kick drum beat that is not in the single version. Of the two versions, the one most widely referred to is the remastered version released in the self-titled 1987 album, although both receive significant airplay today.[citation needed]
Personnel[edit]
Original 1982 version from Saints & Sinners
David Coverdale - lead vocals
Bernie Marsden - guitar
Micky Moody - guitar, backing vocals
Neil Murray - bass
Jon Lord - keyboards
Ian Paice - drums
Mel Galley - backing vocals
1987 version from Whitesnake
David Coverdale - lead vocals
John Sykes - guitar, backing vocals
Neil Murray - bass
Aynsley Dunbar - drums
Adrian Vandenberg - guitar solo
Don Airey - keyboards
Bill Cuomo - keyboards
1987 radio-mix version
David Coverdale - lead vocals
Dann Huff - guitar
Mark Andes - bass
Denny Carmassi - drums
Don Airey - keyboards
Bill Cuomo - keyboards
Chart performance[edit]
Chart (1982)
Peak
position
Australia (Kent Music Report)[8] 53
UK Singles (The Official Charts Company) 34
Chart (1987–88)
Peak
position
Australia (Kent Music Report)[8] 24
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[9] 17
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[10] 1
Germany (Official German Charts)[11] 29
Ireland (IRMA)[12] 7
Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[13] 5
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[14] 34
UK Singles (The Official Charts Company) 9
US Billboard Hot 100[15] 1
US Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks 4
Chart (2007)
Peak
position
Norway (VG-lista)[16] 17
1987 Year-End Chart
Position
Canadian RPM Top Singles[17] 16
Dutch Top 40[18] 68
U.K. Singles Chart[19] 100
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 7
U.S. Cashbox Top 100[20] 6
Cover versions[edit]
A dance cover version by Frash was a minor hit in the UK in 1995, reaching number 69.[21]
In 2004, a dance/pop version of "Here I Go Again" was recorded by Polish dancer and singer Mandaryna.[22] Released as the debut single from her debut album Mandaryna.com, the song became a hit in Poland. It was later remixed by Axel Konrad of Groove Coverage for the single release in German speaking countries.
The song was also frequently performed by Bernie Marsden and Micky Moody in their post-Whitesnake collaborations, appearing on the Moody Marsden Band albums Never Turn Our Back on the Blues and Live in Hell (Unplugged), The Snakes's Live in Europe, The Company of Snakes's live album Here They Go Again, and M3 Classic Whitesnake's Classic Snake Live and Rough and Ready albums. It also appears on Marsden's solo live album Big Boy Blue... Live (also known as Live at the Granary). The version usually played was the 1987 radio-mix arrangement, in spite of neither Moody nor Marsden actually playing on that release, although 1987 keyboard player Don Airey appears on several of the releases.
The song is featured as the act one finale to the musical Rock of Ages.
The song is featured in Uncle Kracker's song "Livin' the Dream" from the album Happy Hour in 2009.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The 21 best power ballads".
Jump up ^ "VH1: 100 Greatest Songs of the 80's". Rock on the Net. Retrieved 2014-01-31.
Jump up ^ "David Coverdale's bio". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 2010-07-12.
Jump up ^ "Key and BPM of Whitesnake - Here I Go Again - AudioKeychain". AudioKeychain.
Jump up ^ "Whitesnake - "Here I go again"". Mvdbase.com. Retrieved 2016-10-31.
Jump up ^ "Whitesnake - Here I Go Again / Bloody Luxury (Vinyl)". Discogs.com. Retrieved 2016-10-31.
Jump up ^ "Whitesnake - Here I Go Again (USA Remix) (Vinyl) at Discogs". www.discogs.com. Retrieved 2017-10-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Kent, David (1993). Australian Chart Book 1970–1992. Australian Chart Book. ISBN 0-646-11917-6.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Whitesnake – Here I Go Again (1987)" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50.
Jump up ^ "Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2012-10-17.
Jump up ^ "Musicline.de – Whitesnake Single-Chartverfolgung" (in German). Media Control Charts. PhonoNet GmbH.
Jump up ^ "The Irish Charts - All there is to know". Irishcharts.ie. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 17 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Nederlandse Top 40 – Whitesnake" (in Dutch). Dutch Top 40.
Jump up ^ "Charts.nz – Whitesnake – Here I Go Again". Top 40 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Whitesnake - Chart history". Billboard. Retrieved 2016-10-31.
Jump up ^ "Norwegiancharts.com – Whitesnake – Here I Go Again". VG-lista.
Jump up ^ "Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2012-10-17.
Jump up ^ "SINGLE TOP 1OO OVER 1987" (PDF). Top40.nl. Retrieved 2016-10-31.
Jump up ^ "UK Top 100 Singles & Albums of 1987". Moopy.org.uk. Retrieved 2012-10-17.
Jump up ^ "Cash Box YE Pop Singles - 1987". Cashboxcountdowns.com. 1987-12-26. Retrieved 2012-10-17.
Jump up ^ "FRASH | full Official Chart History | Official Charts Company". www.officialcharts.com. Retrieved 2017-10-20.
Jump up ^ "Mandaryna Here I go again - YouTube". www.youtube.com. Retrieved 2017-10-20.
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Related articles
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Discography
Coverdale•Page
Deep Purple
Blue Murder
Paice Ashton Lord
Manic Eden
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Martin Birch
Devil City Angels
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Graphical user interface
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"GUI" redirects here. For other uses, see Gui (disambiguation).
The Xerox Alto was the first device to use a graphical user interface.
the interim Dynabook GUI (Smalltalk-76 running on Alto)
The graphical user interface (GUI /ɡuːiː/), is a type of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphical icons and visual indicators such as secondary notation, instead of text-based user interfaces, typed command labels or text navigation. GUIs were introduced in reaction to the perceived steep learning curve of command-line interfaces (CLIs),[1][2][3] which require commands to be typed on a computer keyboard.
The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements.[4] Beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players, portable media players, gaming devices, smartphones and smaller household, office and industrial controls. The term GUI tends not to be applied to other lower-display resolution types of interfaces, such as video games (where head-up display (HUD)[5] is preferred), or not including flat screens, like volumetric displays[6] because the term is restricted to the scope of two-dimensional display screens able to describe generic information, in the tradition of the computer science research at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center.
Contents
[hide]
1 User interface and interaction design
2 Examples
3 Components
4 Post-WIMP interface
5 Interaction
6 History of GUI
6.1 Early efforts
6.2 Popularization
7 Comparison to other interfaces
7.1 Command-line interfaces
7.2 GUI wrappers
8 Three-dimensional user interfaces
8.1 Technologies
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
User interface and interaction design[edit]
The graphical user interface is presented (displayed) on the computer screen. It is the result of processed user input and usually the main interface for human-machine interaction. The touch user interfaces popular on small mobile devices are an overlay of the visual output to the visual input.
Designing the visual composition and temporal behavior of a GUI is an important part of software application programming in the area of human–computer interaction. Its goal is to enhance the efficiency and ease of use for the underlying logical design of a stored program, a design discipline named usability. Methods of user-centered design are used to ensure that the visual language introduced in the design is well-tailored to the tasks.
The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as chrome or GUI (pronounced gooey).[7][8] Typically, users interact with information by manipulating visual widgets that allow for interactions appropriate to the kind of data they hold. The widgets of a well-designed interface are selected to support the actions necessary to achieve the goals of users. A model–view–controller allows a flexible structure in which the interface is independent from and indirectly linked to application functions, so the GUI can be customized easily. This allows users to select or design a different skin at will, and eases the designer's work to change the interface as user needs evolve. Good user interface design relates to users more, and to system architecture less.
Large widgets, such as windows, usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content such as a web page, email message or drawing. Smaller ones usually act as a user-input tool.
A GUI may be designed for the requirements of a vertical market as application-specific graphical user interfaces. Examples include automated teller machines (ATM), point of sale (POS) touchscreens at restaurants,[9] self-service checkouts used in a retail store, airline self-ticketing and check-in, information kiosks in a public space, like a train station or a museum, and monitors or control screens in an embedded industrial application which employ a real-time operating system (RTOS).
By the 1980s, cell phones and handheld game systems also employed application specific touchscreen GUIs. Newer automobiles use GUIs in their navigation systems and multimedia centers, or navigation multimedia center combinations.
Examples[edit]
Sample graphical desktop environments
GNOME Shell (Gnome‑3)
KDE Plasma 5
Unity
Xfce
Enlightenment
Sugar
A twm X Window System environment
Windows on a Wayland compositor
The dwm tiling window manager
Cinnamon
Components[edit]
Layers of a GUI based on a windowing system
Main article: Elements of graphical user interfaces
Further information: WIMP (computing), Window manager, and Desktop environment
A GUI uses a combination of technologies and devices to provide a platform that users can interact with, for the tasks of gathering and producing information.
A series of elements conforming a visual language have evolved to represent information stored in computers. This makes it easier for people with few computer skills to work with and use computer software. The most common combination of such elements in GUIs is the windows, icons, menus, pointer (WIMP) paradigm, especially in personal computers.
The WIMP style of interaction uses a virtual input device to represent the position of a pointing device, most often a mouse, and presents information organized in windows and represented with icons. Available commands are compiled together in menus, and actions are performed making gestures with the pointing device. A window manager facilitates the interactions between windows, applications, and the windowing system. The windowing system handles hardware devices such as pointing devices, graphics hardware, and positioning of the pointer.
In personal computers, all these elements are modeled through a desktop metaphor to produce a simulation called a desktop environment in which the display represents a desktop, on which documents and folders of documents can be placed. Window managers and other software combine to simulate the desktop environment with varying degrees of realism.
Post-WIMP interface[edit]
Main article: Post-WIMP
Smaller mobile devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) and smartphones typically use the WIMP elements with different unifying metaphors, due to constraints in space and available input devices. Applications for which WIMP is not well suited may use newer interaction techniques, collectively termed post-WIMP user interfaces.[10]
As of 2011, some touchscreen-based operating systems such as Apple's iOS (iPhone) and Android use the class of GUIs named post-WIMP. These support styles of interaction using more than one finger in contact with a display, which allows actions such as pinching and rotating, which are unsupported by one pointer and mouse.[11]
Interaction[edit]
Human interface devices, for the efficient interaction with a GUI include a computer keyboard, especially used together with keyboard shortcuts, pointing devices for the cursor (or rather pointer) control: mouse, pointing stick, touchpad, trackball, joystick, virtual keyboards, and head-up displays (translucent information devices at the eye level).
There are also actions performed by programs that affect the GUI. For example, there are components like inotify or D-Bus to facilitate communication between computer programs.
History of GUI[edit]
Main article: History of the graphical user interface
Early efforts[edit]
Ivan Sutherland developed Sketchpad in 1963, widely held as the first graphical computer-aided design program. It used a light pen to create and manipulate objects in engineering drawings in realtime with coordinated graphics. In the late 1960s, researchers at the Stanford Research Institute, led by Douglas Engelbart, developed the On-Line System (NLS), which used text-based hyperlinks manipulated with a then new device: the mouse. In the 1970s, Engelbart's ideas were further refined and extended to graphics by researchers at Xerox PARC and specifically Alan Kay, who went beyond text-based hyperlinks and used a GUI as the main interface for the Xerox Alto computer, released in 1973. Most modern general-purpose GUIs are derived from this system.
The Xerox Star 8010 workstation introduced the first commercial GUI.
The Xerox PARC user interface consisted of graphical elements such as windows, menus, radio buttons, and check boxes. The concept of icons was later introduced by David Canfield Smith, who had written a thesis on the subject under the guidance of Kay.[12][13][14] The PARC user interface employs a pointing device along with a keyboard. These aspects can be emphasized by using the alternative term and acronym for windows, icons, menus, pointing device (WIMP). This effort culminated in the 1973 Xerox Alto, the first computer with a GUI, though the system never reached commercial production.
The first commercially available computer with a GUI was the 1979 PERQ workstation, manufactured by Three Rivers Computer Corporation. In 1981, Xerox eventually commercialized the Alto in the form of a new and enhanced system – the Xerox 8010 Information System – more commonly known as the Xerox Star.[15][16] These early systems spurred many other GUI efforts, including the Apple Lisa (which presented the concept of menu bar and window controls) in 1983, the Apple Macintosh 128K in 1984, and the Atari ST with Digital Research's GEM, and Commodore Amiga in 1985. Visi On was released in 1983 for the IBM PC compatible computers, but was never popular due to its high hardware demands.[17] Nevertheless, it was a crucial influence on the contemporary development of Microsoft Windows.[18]
Apple, Digital Research, IBM and Microsoft used many of Xerox's ideas to develop products, and IBM's Common User Access specifications formed the basis of the user interfaces used in Microsoft Windows, IBM OS/2 Presentation Manager, and the Unix Motif toolkit and window manager. These ideas evolved to create the interface found in current versions of Microsoft Windows, and in various desktop environments for Unix-like operating systems, such as macOS and Linux. Thus most current GUIs have largely common idioms.
Macintosh 128K, the first Macintosh (1984)
Popularization[edit]
GUIs were a hot topic in the early 1980s. The Apple Lisa was released in 1983, and various windowing systems existed for DOS operating systems (including PC GEM and PC/GEOS). Individual applications for many platforms presented their own GUI variants.[19] Despite the GUIs advantages, many reviewers questioned the value of the entire concept,[20] citing hardware limits, and problems in finding compatible software.
In 1984, Apple released a television commercial which introduced the Apple Macintosh during the telecast of Super Bowl XVIII by CBS,[21] with allusions to George Orwell's noted novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four. The goal of the commercial was to make people think about computers, identifying the user-friendly interface as a personal computer which departed from prior business-oriented systems,[22] and becoming a signature representation of Apple products.[23]
Accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign,[24] Windows 95 was a major success in the marketplace at launch and shortly became the most popular desktop operating system.[25][citation needed]
In 2007, with the iPhone[26] and later in 2010 with the introduction of the iPad,[27] Apple popularized the post-WIMP style of interaction for multi-touch screens, and those devices were considered to be milestones in the development of mobile devices.[28][29]
The GUIs familiar to most people as of the mid-late 2010s are Microsoft Windows, macOS, and the X Window System interfaces for desktop and laptop computers, and Android, Apple's iOS, Symbian, BlackBerry OS, Windows Phone/Windows 10 Mobile, Palm OS-WebOS, and Firefox OS for handheld (smartphone) devices.[30][citation needed]
Comparison to other interfaces[edit]
Command-line interfaces[edit]
A modern CLI
Since the commands available in command line interfaces can be many, complex operations can be performed using a short sequence of words and symbols. This allows greater efficiency and productivity once many commands are learned,[1][2][3] but reaching this level takes some time because the command words may not be easily discoverable or mnemonic. Also, using the command line can become slow and error-prone when users must enter long commands comprising many parameters or several different filenames at once. However, windows, icons, menus, pointer (WIMP) interfaces present users with many widgets that represent and can trigger some of the system's available commands.
GUIs can be made quite hard when dialogs are buried deep in a system, or moved about to different places during redesigns. Also, icons and dialog boxes are usually harder for users to script.
WIMPs extensively use modes, as the meaning of all keys and clicks on specific positions on the screen are redefined all the time. Command line interfaces use modes only in limited forms, such as for current directory and environment variables.
Most modern operating systems provide both a GUI and some level of a CLI, although the GUIs usually receive more attention. The GUI is usually WIMP-based, although occasionally other metaphors surface, such as those used in Microsoft Bob, 3dwm, or File System Visualizer.
GUI wrappers[edit]
Graphical user interface (GUI) wrappers circumvent the command-line interface versions (CLI) of (typically) Linux and Unix-like software applications and their text-based user interfaces or typed command labels. While command-line or text-based application allow users to run a program non-interactively, GUI wrappers atop them avoid the steep learning curve of the command-line, which requires commands to be typed on the keyboard. By starting a GUI wrapper, users can intuitively interact with, start, stop, and change its working parameters, through graphical icons and visual indicators of a desktop environment, for example. Applications may also provide both interfaces, and when they do the GUI is usually a WIMP wrapper around the command-line version. This is especially common with applications designed for Unix-like operating systems. The latter used to be implemented first because it allowed the developers to focus exclusively on their product's functionality without bothering about interface details such as designing icons and placing buttons. Designing programs this way also allows users to run the program in a shell script.
Three-dimensional user interfaces[edit]
This section is about 3D user interfaces as software. For physical 3D input/output devices, see 3D interaction § 3D user interfaces.
For typical computer displays, three-dimensional is a misnomer—their displays are two-dimensional. Semantically, however, most graphical user interfaces use three dimensions. With height and width, they offer a third dimension of layering or stacking screen elements over one another. This may be represented visually on screen through an illusionary transparent effect, which offers the advantage that information in background windows may still be read, if not interacted with. Or the environment may simply hide the background information, possibly making the distinction apparent by drawing a drop shadow effect over it.
Some environments use the methods of 3D graphics to project virtual three dimensional user interface objects onto the screen. These are often shown in use in science fiction films (see below for examples). As the processing power of computer graphics hardware increases, this becomes less of an obstacle to a smooth user experience.
Three-dimensional graphics are currently mostly used in computer games, art, and computer-aided design (CAD). A three-dimensional computing environment can also be useful in other uses, like molecular graphics and aircraft design.
Several attempts have been made to create a multi-user three-dimensional environment, including the Croquet Project and Sun's Project Looking Glass.
Technologies[edit]
This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (May 2012)
The use of three-dimensional graphics has become increasingly common in mainstream operating systems, from creating attractive interfaces, termed eye candy, to functional purposes only possible using three dimensions. For example, user switching is represented by rotating a cube which faces are each user's workspace, and window management is represented via a Rolodex-style flipping mechanism in Windows Vista (see Windows Flip 3D). In both cases, the operating system transforms windows on-the-fly while continuing to update the content of those windows.
Interfaces for the X Window System have also implemented advanced three-dimensional user interfaces through compositing window managers such as Beryl, Compiz and KWin using the AIGLX or XGL architectures, allowing use of OpenGL to animate user interactions with the desktop.
Another branch in the three-dimensional desktop environment is the three-dimensional GUIs that take the desktop metaphor a step further, like the BumpTop, where users can manipulate documents and windows as if they were physical documents, with realistic movement and physics.
The zooming user interface (ZUI) is a related technology that promises to deliver the representation benefits of 3D environments without their usability drawbacks of orientation problems and hidden objects. It is a logical advance on the GUI, blending some three-dimensional movement with two-dimensional or 2.5D vector objects. In 2006, Hillcrest Labs introduced the first zooming user interface for television,[31] literature and films before they were technically feasible or in common use. For example; the 1993 American film Jurassic Park features Silicon Graphics' three-dimensional file manager File System Navigator, a real-life file manager for Unix operating systems. The film Minority Report has scenes of police officers using specialized 3d data systems. In prose fiction, three-dimensional user interfaces have been portrayed as immersible environments like William Gibson's Cyberspace or Neal Stephenson's Metaverse. Many futuristic imaginings of user interfaces rely heavily on object-oriented user interface (OOUI) style and especially object-oriented graphical user interface (OOGUI) style.[32]
See also[edit]
Computer Science portal
Information technology portal
Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp.
Console user interface
Computer icon
Distinguishable interfaces
Ergonomics
General Graphics Interface (software project)
Look and feel
Natural user interface
Ncurses
Object-oriented user interface
Organic user interface
Rich Internet application
Skeuomorph
Skin (computing)
Theme (computing)
Text entry interface
User interface design
Vector-based graphical user interface
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Computerhope.com
^ Jump up to: a b Technet.com
^ Jump up to: a b Technet.com
Jump up ^ "window manager Definition". PC Magazine. Ziff Davis Publishing Holdings Inc. Retrieved 12 November 2008.
Jump up ^ Greg Wilson (2006). "Off with Their HUDs!: Rethinking the Heads-Up Display in Console Game Design". Gamasutra. Retrieved February 14, 2006.
Jump up ^ "GUI definition". Linux Information Project. October 1, 2004. Retrieved 12 November 2008.
Jump up ^ The Jargon Book, "Chrome"
Jump up ^ Jakob Nielsen. "Browser and GUI Chrome".
Jump up ^ The ViewTouch restaurant system by Giselle Bisson
Jump up ^ IEEE.org.
Jump up ^ Reality-Based Interaction: A Framework for Post-WIMP Interfaces
Jump up ^ Lieberman, Henry. "A Creative Programming Environment, Remixed", MIT Media Lab, Cambridge.
Jump up ^ Salha, Nader. "Aesthetics and Art in the Early Development of Human-Computer Interfaces", October 2012.
Jump up ^ Smith, David. "Pygmalion: A Creative Programming Environment", 1975.
Jump up ^ The first GUIs
Jump up ^ Xerox Star user interface demonstration, 1982
Jump up ^ "VisiCorp Visi On". The Visi On product was apparently not intended for the home user. It was designed and priced for high end corporate workstations. The hardware it required was quite a bit for 1983. It required a minimum of 512k of ram and a hard drive (5 megs of space).
Jump up ^ A Windows Retrospective, PC Magazine Jan 2009.
Jump up ^ "Magic Desk I for Commodore 64".
Jump up ^ "Value of Windowing is Questioned".
Jump up ^ Friedman, Ted (October 1997). "Apple's 1984: The Introduction of the Macintosh in the Cultural History of Personal Computers". Archived from the original on October 5, 1999.
Jump up ^ Friedman, Ted (2005). "Chapter 5: 1984". Electric Dreams: Computers in American Culture. New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-2740-9. Retrieved October 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ Grote, Patrick (October 29, 2006). "Review of Pirates of Silicon Valley Movie". DotJournal.com. Archived from the original on November 7, 2006. Retrieved January 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ Washington Post (August 24, 1995). "With Windows 95's Debut, Microsoft Scales Heights of Hype". Washington Post. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Computers | Timeline of Computer History | Computer History Museum". www.computerhistory.org. Retrieved 2017-04-02.
Jump up ^ Mather, John. iMania, Ryerson Review of Journalism, (February 19, 2007) Retrieved February 19, 2007
Jump up ^ "the iPad could finally spark demand for the hitherto unsuccessful tablet PC" --Eaton, Nick The iPad/tablet PC market defined?, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 2010
Jump up ^ Bright, Peter Ballmer (and Microsoft) still doesn't get the iPad, Ars Technica, 2010
Jump up ^ "The iPad's victory in defining the tablet: What it means". Infoworld.
Jump up ^ Hanson, Cody W. (2011-03-17). "Chapter 2: Mobile Devices in 2011". Library Technology Reports. 47 (2): 11–23. ISSN 0024-2586.
Jump up ^ Macworld.com November 11, 2006. Dan Moren. CES Unveiled@NY ‘07: Point and click coming to set-top boxes?
Jump up ^ Dayton, Tom. "Object-Oriented GUIs are the Future". OpenMCT Blog. Retrieved 23 August 2012.
External links[edit]
Look up graphical user interface in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Graphical user interface.
Evolution of Graphical User Interface in last 50 years by Raj Lal
The men who really invented the GUI by Clive Akass
Graphical User Interface Gallery, screenshots of various GUIs
Marcin Wichary's GUIdebook, Graphical User Interface gallery: over 5500 screenshots of GUI, application and icon history
The Real History of the GUI by Mike Tuck
In The Beginning Was The Command Line by Neal Stephenson
3D Graphical User Interfaces (PDF) by Farid BenHajji and Erik Dybner, Department of Computer and Systems Sciences, Stockholm University
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