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Email marketing
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Part of a series on
Internet marketing
Search engine optimization
Local search engine optimisation
Social media marketing
Email marketing
Referral marketing
Content marketing
Native advertising
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Search analytics
Web analytics
Display advertising
Ad blocking
Contextual advertising
Behavioral targeting
Affiliate marketing
Cost per action
Revenue sharing
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v
t
e
Email marketing is the act of sending a commercial message, typically to a group of people, using email. In its broadest sense, every email sent to a potential or current customer could be considered email marketing. It usually involves using email to send advertisements, request business, or solicit sales or donations, and is meant to build loyalty, trust, or brand awareness. Marketing emails can be sent to a purchased lead list or a current customer database. The term usually refers to sending email messages with the purpose of enhancing a merchant's relationship with current or previous customers, encouraging customer loyalty and repeat business, acquiring new customers or convincing current customers to purchase something immediately, and sharing third-party ads.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Types
2.1 Transactional emails
2.2 Direct emails
2.2.1 Mobile email marketing
3 Comparison to traditional mail
3.1 Advantages
3.2 Disadvantages
4 Opt-in email advertising
5 Legal requirements
5.1 Australia
5.2 Canada
5.3 European Union
5.4 United States
6 See also
7 References
History
Email marketing has evolved rapidly alongside the technological growth of the 21st century. Prior to this growth, when emails were novelties to the majority of customers, email marketing was not as effective. In 1978, Gary Thuerk of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) sent out the first mass email[1] to approximately 400 potential clients via the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET). This email resulted in $13 million worth of sales in DEC products, and highlighted the potential of marketing through mass emails. However, as email marketing developed as an effective means of direct communication, users began blocking out content from emails with filters and blocking programs. In order to effectively communicate a message through email, marketers had to develop a way of pushing content through to the end user, without being cut out by automatic filters and spam removing software. This resulted in the birth of triggered marketing emails, which are sent to specific users based on their tracked online browsing patterns.
Historically, it has been difficult to measure the effectiveness of marketing campaigns because target markets cannot be adequately defined. Email marketing carries the benefit of allowing marketers to identify returns on investment and measure and improve efficiency.[citation needed] Email marketing allows marketers to see feedback from users in real time, and to monitor how effective their campaign is in achieving market penetration, revealing a communication channel's scope. At the same time, however, it also means that the more personal nature of certain advertising methods, such as television advertisements, cannot be captured.
Types
Email marketing can be carried out through different types of emails:
Transactional emails
Transactional emails are usually triggered based on a customer's action with a company. To be qualified as transactional or relationship messages, these communications' primary purpose must be "to facilitate, complete, or confirm a commercial transaction that the recipient has previously agreed to enter into with the sender" along with a few other narrow definitions of transactional messaging.[2] Triggered transactional messages include dropped basket messages, password reset emails, purchase or order confirmation emails, order status emails, reorder emails, and email receipts.
The primary purpose of a transactional email is to convey information regarding the action that triggered it. But, due to their high open rates (51.3% compared to 36.6% for email newsletters), transactional emails are an opportunity to introduce or extend the email relationship with customers or subscribers; to anticipate and answer questions; or to cross-sell or up-sell products or services.[3]
Many email newsletter software vendors offer transactional email support, which gives companies the ability to include promotional messages within the body of transactional emails. There are also software vendors that offer specialized transactional email marketing services, which include providing targeted and personalized transactional email messages and running specific marketing campaigns (such as customer referral programs).[citation needed]
Direct emails
Direct email involves sending an email solely to communicate a promotional message (for example, a special offer or a product catalog). Companies usually collect a list of customer or prospect email addresses to send direct promotional messages to, or they rent a list of email addresses from service companies. Safe mail marketing is also used.[citation needed]
Mobile email marketing
Email marketing develops large amounts[vague] of traffic through smartphones and tablets. Marketers are researching ways to advertise to more users and to make them view advertising for longer. However, the rate of delivery is still relatively low due to better filtering-out of advertising and users having multiple email accounts for different purposes. Because emails are generated according to the tracked behavior of consumers, it is possible to send advertising which is based on the recipient's behavior. Because of this, modern email marketing is perceived more often as a pull strategy rather than a push strategy.[citation needed]
Comparison to traditional mail
There are both advantages and disadvantages to using email marketing in comparison to traditional advertising mail.
Advantages
Email marketing is popular with companies for several reasons:
An exact return on investment can be tracked ("track to basket") and has proven to be high[vague] when done properly. Email marketing is often reported as second only to search marketing as the most effective online marketing tactic.[4]
Email marketing is significantly cheaper and faster than traditional mail, mainly because of the high cost and time required in a traditional mail campaign for producing the artwork, printing, addressing, and mailing.
Businesses and organizations who send a high volume of emails can use an ESP (email service provider) to gather information about the behavior of the recipients. The insights provided by consumer response to email marketing help businesses and organizations understand and make use of consumer behavior.
Email provides a cost-effective method to test different marketing content, including visual, creative, marketing copy, and multimedia assets. The data gathered by testing in the email channel can then be used across all channels of marketing campaigns, both print and digital.
Advertisers can reach substantial numbers of email subscribers who have opted in (i.e., consented) to receive the email.[citation needed]
Almost half of American Internet users check or send email on a typical day,[5] with emails delivered between 1 am and 5 am local time outperforming those sent at other times in open and click rates.[6][7]
Email is popular with digital marketers, rising an estimated 15% in 2009 to £292 million in the UK.[8]
If compared to standard email, direct email marketing produces higher response rate and higher average order value for e-commerce businesses.[9]
Disadvantages
As of mid-2016 email deliverability is still an issue for legitimate marketers. According to the report, legitimate email servers averaged a delivery rate of 73% in the U.S.; six percent were filtered as spam, and 22% were missing. This lags behind other countries: Australia delivers at 90%, Canada at 89%, Britain at 88%, France at 84%, Germany at 80% and Brazil at 79%.[10]
Additionally, consumers receive on average circa 90 emails per day.[11]
Companies considering the use of an email marketing program must make sure that their program does not violate spam laws such as the United States' Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing Act (CAN-SPAM),[12] the European Privacy and Electronic Communications Regulations 2003, or their Internet service provider's acceptable use policy.
Opt-in email advertising
Opt-in email advertising, or permission marketing, is a method of advertising via email whereby the recipient of the advertisement has consented to receive it. This method is one of several developed by marketers to eliminate the disadvantages of email marketing.[13]
Opt-in email marketing may evolve into a technology that uses a handshake protocol between the sender and receiver.[13] This system is intended to eventually result in a high degree of satisfaction between consumers and marketers. If opt-in email advertising is used, the material that is emailed to consumers will be "anticipated". It is assumed that the recipient wants to receive it, which makes it unlike unsolicited advertisements sent to the consumer. Ideally, opt-in email advertisements will be more personal and relevant to the consumer than untargeted advertisements.[citation needed]
A common example of permission marketing is a newsletter sent to an advertising firm's customers. Such newsletters inform customers of upcoming events or promotions, or new products.[14] In this type of advertising, a company that wants to send a newsletter to their customers may ask them at the point of purchase if they would like to receive the newsletter.
With a foundation of opted-in contact information stored in their database, marketers can send out promotional materials automatically using autoresponders—known as drip marketing. They can also segment their promotions to specific market segments.[15]
Legal requirements
Australia
The Australian Spam Act 2003 is enforced by the Australian Communications and Media Authority, widely known as "ACMA". The act defines the term unsolicited electronic messages, states how unsubscribe functions must work for commercial messages, and gives other key information. Fines range with 3 fines of AU$110,000 being issued to Virgin Blue Airlines (2011), Tiger Airways Holdings Limited (2012) and Cellar master Wines Pty Limited (2013).[16]
Canada
The "Canada Anti-Spam Law" (CASL) went into effect on July 1, 2014.[17] CASL requires an explicit or implicit opt-in from users, and the maximum fines for noncompliance are CA$1 million for individuals and $10 million for businesses.[18]
European Union
In 2002 the European Union (EU) introduced the Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications. Article 13 of the Directive prohibits the use of personal email addresses for marketing purposes. The Directive establishes the opt-in regime, where unsolicited emails may be sent only with prior agreement of the recipient; this does not apply to business email addresses.
The directive has since been incorporated into the laws of member states. In the UK it is covered under the Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003[19] and applies to all organizations that send out marketing by some form of electronic communication.
United States
The CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 was passed by Congress as a direct response of the growing number of complaints over spam e-mails.[citation needed] Congress determined that the US government was showing an increased interest in the regulation of commercial electronic mail nationally, that those who send commercial e-mails should not mislead recipients over the source or content of them, and that all recipients of such emails have a right to decline them. The act authorizes a US $16,000 penalty per violation for spamming each individual recipient.[20] However, it does not ban spam emailing outright, but imposes laws on using deceptive marketing methods through headings which are "materially false or misleading". In addition there are conditions which email marketers must meet in terms of their format, their content and labeling. As a result, many commercial email marketers within the United States utilize a service or special software to ensure compliance with the act. A variety of older systems exist that do not ensure compliance with the act. To comply with the act's regulation of commercial email, services also typically require users to authenticate their return address and include a valid physical address, provide a one-click unsubscribe feature, and prohibit importing lists of purchased addresses that may not have given valid permission.[citation needed]
In addition to satisfying legal requirements, email service providers (ESPs) began to help customers establish and manage their own email marketing campaigns. The service providers supply email templates and general best practices, as well as methods for handling subscriptions and cancellations automatically. Some ESPs will provide insight and assistance with deliverability issues for major email providers. They also provide statistics pertaining to the number of messages received and opened, and whether the recipients clicked on any links within the messages.
The CAN-SPAM Act was updated with some new regulations including a no-fee provision for opting out, further definition of "sender", post office or private mail boxes count as a "valid physical postal address" and definition of "person". These new provisions went into effect on July 7, 2008.[21] [22]
See also
CAUCE – Coalition Against Unsolicited Commercial Email
Customer engagement
Suppression list
Email spam - Unsolicited email marketing
References
Jump up ^ "spam | unsolicited e-mail". Retrieved September 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "PUBLIC LAW 108–187—DEC. 16, 2003 117 STAT. 2699" (PDF). U.S Government GPO.
Jump up ^ ADIKESAVAN, T. MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS BEST PRACTICES AND APPLICATIONS IN BUSINESS. ISBN 8120348966. Retrieved July 10, 2015.
Jump up ^ MECLABS, content: MarketingSherpa, design: Scott McDaniel, code: Steve Beger, (January 21, 2009). "New Survey Data: Email's ROI Makes Tactic Key for Marketers in 2009". MarketingSherpa.com. Retrieved August 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Pew Internet & American Life Project, "Tracking surveys", March 2000 – March 2009
Jump up ^ How Scheduling Affects Rates. Mailermailer.com (July 2012). Retrieved on July 28, 2013.
Jump up ^ BtoB Magazine, "Early Email Blasts Results in Higher Click & Open Rates" Archived 2011-11-22 at the Wayback Machine., September 2011
Jump up ^ UK e-mail marketing predicted to rise 15%. MediaWeek.co.uk (13 October 2009)
Jump up ^ "Why Email Marketing is King". Harvard Business Review (21 August 2012)
Jump up ^ Roberts, A. "Email deliverability is on the decline: report", ClickZ
Jump up ^ Radicati, Sara. "Email Statistics Report, 2014-2018" (PDF). The Radicati Group, Inc.
Jump up ^ "Consumer Information". Consumer Information. Retrieved August 12, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Fairhead, N. (2003) "All hail the brave new world of permission marketing via email" (Media 16, August 2003)
Jump up ^ Dilworth, Dianna (2007). "Ruth's Chris Steak House sends sizzling e-mails for special occasions". DMNews. Retrieved February 19, 2008.
Jump up ^ O'Brian J. & Montazemia, A. (2004) Management Information Systems (Canada: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.)
Jump up ^ "Spam: enforcement actions". Australian Communications and Media Authority. Australian Communications and Media Authority. Archived from the original on February 29, 2016. Retrieved August 15, 2015.
Jump up ^ Moorcraft, Bethan. "Law could force idle brokers back to dark ages". Insurance Business. Retrieved August 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Canada's law on spam". Government of Canada. Retrieved July 19, 2014. .
Jump up ^ The Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003 Archived November 14, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.. Opsi.gov.uk. Retrieved on July 28, 2013.
Jump up ^ "CAN-SPAM Act: A Compliance Guide for Business". FTC.gov. BCP Business Center. Retrieved August 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "FTC Approves New Rule Provision Under The CAN-SPAM Act". FTC.gov. June 24, 2011.
Jump up ^ "16 CFR Part 316 Definitions and Implementation Under the CAN–SPAM Act; Final Rule" (PDF). FTC.gov. May 21, 2008.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Email_marketing&oldid=814071202"
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The Mother (How I Met Your Mother)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Tracy McConnell
How I Met Your Mother character
The Mother appearing in "The Locket"
First appearance
"Lucky Penny (unseen)"
"Something New" (seen)
Last appearance
"Last Forever"
Created by
Carter Bays
Craig Thomas
Portrayed by
Cristin Milioti
Information
Aliases
The Mother
Gender
Female
Spouse(s)
Ted Mosby
Significant other(s)
Max (deceased former boyfriend)
Louis (ex-boyfriend)
Children
Penny Mosby (daughter, born in 2015, played by Lyndsy Fonseca)
Luke Mosby (son, born in 2017, played by David Henrie)
Nationality
American
Tracy McConnell, better known as "The Mother", is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother. The show, narrated by Future Ted, tells the story of how Ted Mosby met The Mother. Tracy McConnell appears in 8 episodes from "Lucky Penny" to "The Time Travelers" as an unseen character; she was first seen fully in "Something New" and was promoted to a main character in season 9. The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti.
The story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series, including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment. Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson and Robin Scherbatsky's wedding; this scene is shown in "Last Forever", the series finale. The Mother's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024, also revealed in the series finale, received a mixed reaction from fans.
An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030.[1][2] In the video, future Ted is heard saying, "...When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I can't help but be amazed how easy it all really was...", indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Casting
2 Character history
2.1 Name
3 Death
4 Notes
5 References
Casting[edit]
During its first eight seasons, the successful sitcom How I Met Your Mother often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well-known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most-wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that "We didn’t want it to be a big famous star because we didn’t want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be ... The whole idea is that Ted’s never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience", similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had "kept the show alive" when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call.[4][5]
They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. After competing for the role against at least two others, Milioti filmed her first scene—for the last episode of season 8—having never watched How I Met Your Mother; she recalled, "I had ignorance on my side. So I didn’t know what it meant." Milioti learned of the character's importance only after binge watching the show during the summer.[5][6]
Character history[edit]
The Mother was born on September 19, 1984.[note 1]
The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max's last gift to her — a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love.[7]
In "Wait for It", it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In "No Tomorrow", Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since the death of Max, her late boyfriend. She is still grieving, but her roommate Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Ted and Barney are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch, her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. After they start talking, Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college.[7]
On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale "The Leap", he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, "Definitions", it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom — Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in "How Your Mother Met Me", the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy (Rachel Bilson), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom.
Later, in "Girls Versus Suits", Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother's apartment he picks up many of The Mother's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy's) and glimpses the mother's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, "this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back." In "How Your Mother Met Me", it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her in a state. As she tried to console her, Cindy said that she was a much better match for Ted, and began to lovingly list all of the reasons that Ted would find the mother attractive, before spontaneously kissing her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian, it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time.
Some time after this, a man named Darren approaches The Mother and is welcomed into her band named Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band.[7]
In the season 6 opener "Big Days" it is revealed Ted meets his future wife "the day of" the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode "False Positive" Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode "Challenge Accepted", it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, "The Magician's Code" it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the mother "the day of" their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted's wife appears after Barney and Robin's wedding, outside at the "Farhampton" station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar.
In the season 8 episode "Band or DJ?," Ted runs into Cindy on the subway and tells her that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy's (now ex-) roommate's band plays at Barney and Robin's wedding.
The Mother is first shown meeting Louis in "How Your Mother Met Me" as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now-lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren's Pub, she tells him she's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind and they begin dating not long after.
The Mother meets all of Ted's best friends (Barney, Lily, Marshall and Robin) before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in "Platonish". In "The Locket", Tracy meets Lily on a train journey.
In "Bass Player Wanted", the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall, carrying his son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band, that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception. But the band's leader, Darren, forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. She ends up alone at the bar, and while practicing a speech to give Darren, Darren walks up to her furious the groom's best man punched him for "no reason." Amused by this, the Mother laughs, and Darren quits the band in anger.
In "How Your Mother Met Me", it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She declines Louis' proposal and leaves his cottage, going to check in at Farhampton Inn. On her room's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings "La Vie en Rose". Ted hears her singing from his room next door.
In "Gary Blauman", Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish-Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run-in with Louis. She says that she is in the "weirdest place on earth" right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date.
In a flashforward in "The Lighthouse", Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in "Unpause", the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton.
Name[edit]
The Mother's real name is not revealed until the series finale, "Last Forever". When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode "Belly Full of Turkey", Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says "...that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother". The children react in surprise and appear to believe Ted before he admits he is joking,[9] which led some fans to correctly guess that The Mother's name is Tracy.[10]
Death[edit]
See also: Last Forever
In the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the mother is dead. Ted says that she "became sick" and his children saying that she has been "gone" for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment to The Mother's death.[11] Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning.[12] Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that The Mother was "an amazing character"[9] and that "over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy.[13] Kuchman said that "asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request", that the finale "advanced too quickly" and that "HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue".[9]
A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage.[14][15] On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene.[16][17] In the alternate ending, the mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030.[18][1]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The Mother celebrates her 21st birthday on the day that "Pilot" is set.[7] The pilot is set on September 19, 2005.[8]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Debnath, Neela (7 September 2014). "How I Met Your Mother alternative finale leaks online ahead of DVD release". The Independent. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Kreps, Daniel (September 6, 2014). "Watch the Happier 'How I Met Your Mother' Alternate Ending". Rolling Stone.
Jump up ^ MacGregor, Rachel (September 23, 2014). "8 reasons why How I Met Your Mother should've used its alternative ending". Metro UK.
Jump up ^ Stransky, Tanner (2013-05-13). "'How I Met Your Mother': Burning questions about the mother". Entertainment Weekly.
^ Jump up to: a b Fallon, Kevin (2013-05-14). "'How I Met Your Mother' Mother Revealed: Meet Cristin Milioti". The Daily Beast.
Jump up ^ Fallon, Kevin (2015-11-03). "How Cristin Milioti Met 'Fargo'—And Left 'How I Met Your Mother' Behind". The Daily Beast.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "How Your Mother Met Me". How I Met Your Mother. Season 9. Episode 16. January 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Pilot". How I Met Your Mother. Season 1. Episode 1. September 19, 2005. CBS.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kuchman, Bill (April 4, 2014). "'How I Met Your Mother' 'Last Forever' Recap: A Divisive Finale and What It Means for 'HIMYM'". Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Rullo, Samantha (10 March 2014). "What is The Mother's Name on 'How I Met Your Mother'? Episode Title Might Hold the Secret". Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ "HIMYM Tomatometer Watch: Series Finale Currently Rotten - Majority of critics disappointed by 'Last Forever'". Rotten Tomatoes. April 2, 2014. Retrieved April 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/cristin-milioti-sobbed-found-characters-fate-met-mother/story?id=25947923
Jump up ^ Kuchman, Bill (March 31, 2014). "'HIMYM' Finale Instant Reaction". Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Guerrero, Danger (April 4, 2014). "Now There's A Petition To 'Rewrite And Reshoot' The 'How I Met Your Mother' Ending". Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Maresca, Rachel (April 3, 2014). "'How I Met Your Mother' series finale sparks online petition from fans who want ending changed". New York Daily News. Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Update for those who've been asking: Alt #himym ending will be on s9 DVD and also in the series box set. https://twitter.com/CarterBays/status/452299544995184640
Jump up ^ James, Lauren (April 5, 2014). "'How I Met Your Mother' May Get Alternate Ending After Petition, Says Carter Bays". Contact Music. Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kreps, Daniel (September 6, 2014). "Watch the Happier 'How I Met Your Mother' Alternate Ending". Rolling Stone. Retrieved November 16, 2014.
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Human fertilization
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The acrosome reaction for a sea urchin, a similar process. Note that the picture shows several stages of one and the same spermatozoon - only one penetrates the ovum
Illustration depicting ovulation and fertilization.
Human fertilization is the union of a human egg and sperm, usually occurring in the ampulla of the fallopian tube. The result of this union is the production of a zygote cell, or fertilized egg, initiating prenatal development. Scientists discovered the dynamics of human fertilization in the nineteenth century.[1]
The process of fertilization involves a sperm fusing with an ovum. The most common sequence begins with ejaculation during copulation, follows with ovulation, and finishes with fertilization. Various exceptions to this sequence are possible, including artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, external ejaculation without copulation, or copulation shortly after ovulation.[2][3][4] Upon encountering the secondary oocyte, the acrosome of the sperm produces enzymes which allow it to burrow through the outer jelly coat of the egg. The sperm plasma then fuses with the egg's plasma membrane, the sperm head disconnects from its flagellum and the egg travels down the Fallopian tube to reach the uterus.
In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a process by which egg cells are fertilized by sperm outside the womb, in vitro.
Contents
[hide]
1 Anatomy
1.1 Corona radiata
1.2 Cone of attraction and perivitelline membrane
1.3 Sperm preparation
1.4 Zona pellucida
1.4.1 Cortical reaction
2 Fusion
2.1 Cell membranes
2.2 Transformations
2.3 Replication
2.4 Mitosis
3 Fertilization age
4 Diseases
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Anatomy[edit]
Corona radiata[edit]
The sperm binds through the corona radiata, a layer of follicle cells on the outside of the secondary oocyte. Fertilization occurs when the nucleus of both a sperm and an egg fuse to form a diploid cell, known as zygote. The successful fusion of gametes forms a new organism.
Cone of attraction and perivitelline membrane[edit]
Where the spermatozoon is about to pierce, the yolk (ooplasm) is drawn out into a conical elevation, termed the cone of attraction or reception cone. Once the spermatozoon has entered, the peripheral portion of the yolk changes into a membrane, the perivitelline membrane, which prevents the passage of additional spermatozoa.[5]
Sperm preparation[edit]
Further information: Acrosome reaction
At the beginning of the process, the sperm undergoes a series of changes, as freshly ejaculated sperm is unable or poorly able to fertilize.[6] The sperm must undergo capacitation in the female's reproductive tract over several hours, which increases its motility and destabilizes its membrane, preparing it for the acrosome reaction, the enzymatic penetration of the egg's tough membrane, the zona pellucida, which surrounds the oocyte.
Zona pellucida[edit]
After binding to the corona radiata the sperm reaches the zona pellucida, which is an extra-cellular matrix of glycoproteins. A special complementary molecule on the surface of the sperm head binds to a ZP3 glycoprotein in the zona pellucida. This binding triggers the acrosome to burst, releasing enzymes that help the sperm get through the zona pellucida.
Some sperm cells consume their acrosome prematurely on the surface of the egg cell, facilitating the penetration by other sperm cells. As a population, sperm cells have on average 50% genome similarity so the premature acrosomal reactions aid fertilization by a member of the same cohort.[7] It may be regarded as a mechanism of kin selection.
Recent studies have shown that the egg is not passive during this process.[8][9]
Cortical reaction[edit]
Once the sperm cells find their way past the zona pellucida, the cortical reaction occurs. Cortical granules inside the secondary oocyte fuse with the plasma membrane of the cell, causing enzymes inside these granules to be expelled by exocytosis to the zona pellucida. This in turn causes the glyco-proteins in the zona pellucida to cross-link with each other — i.e. the enzymes cause the ZP2 to hydrolyse into ZP2f — making the whole matrix hard and impermeable to sperm. This prevents fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm. The cortical reaction and acrosome reaction are both essential to ensure that only one sperm will fertilize an egg.[10]
Fusion[edit]
Fertilization and implantation in humans.
After the sperm enters the cytoplasm of the oocyte (also called ovocyte), the tail and the outer coating of the sperm disintegrate and the cortical reaction takes place, preventing other sperm from fertilizing the same egg. The oocyte now undergoes its second meiotic division producing the haploid ovum and releasing a polar body. The sperm nucleus then fuses with the ovum, enabling fusion of their genetic material.
Cell membranes[edit]
The fusion of cell membranes of the secondary oocyte and sperm takes place.
Transformations[edit]
In preparation for the fusion of their genetic material both the oocyte and the sperm undergo transformations as a reaction to the fusion of cell membranes.
The oocyte completes its second meiotic division. This results in a mature ovum. The nucleus of the oocyte is called a pronucleus in this process, to distinguish it from the nuclei that are the result of fertilization.
The sperm's tail and mitochondria degenerate with the formation of the male pronucleus. This is why all mitochondria in humans are of maternal origin. Still, a considerable amount of RNA from the sperm is delivered to the resulting embryo and likely influences embryo development and the phenotype of the offspring.[11]
Replication[edit]
The pronuclei migrate toward the center of the oocyte, rapidly replicating their DNA as they do so to prepare the zygote for its first mitotic division.[12]
Mitosis[edit]
Usually 23 chromosomes from spermatozoon and 23 chromosomes from egg cell fuse (half of spermatozoons carry X chromosome and the other half Y chromosome[13]). Their membranes dissolve, leaving no barriers between the male and female chromosomes. During this dissolution, a mitotic spindle forms between them. The spindle captures the chromosomes before they disperse in the egg cytoplasm. Upon subsequently undergoing mitosis (which includes pulling of chromatids towards centrioles in anaphase) the cell gathers genetic material from the male and female together. Thus, the first mitosis of the union of sperm and oocyte is the actual fusion of their chromosomes.[12]
Each of the two daughter cells resulting from that mitosis has one replica of each chromatid that was replicated in the previous stage. Thus, they are genetically identical.
Fertilization age[edit]
Fertilization is the event most commonly used to mark the zero point in descriptions of prenatal development of the embryo or fetus. The resultant age is known as fertilization age, fertilizational age, embryonic age, fetal age or (intrauterine) developmental (IUD)[14] age.
Gestational age, in contrast, takes the beginning of the last menstrual period (LMP) as the zero point. By convention, gestational age is calculated by adding 14 days to fertilization age and vice versa.[15] In fact, however, fertilization usually occurs within a day of ovulation, which, in turn, occurs on average 14.6 days after the beginning of the preceding menstruation (LMP).[16] There is also considerable variability in this interval, with a 95% prediction interval of the ovulation of 9 to 20 days after menstruation even for an average woman who has a mean LMP-to-ovulation time of 14.6.[17] In a reference group representing all women, the 95% prediction interval of the LMP-to-ovulation is 8.2 to 20.5 days.[16]
The average time to birth has been estimated to be 268 days (38 weeks and two days) from ovulation, with a standard deviation of 10 days or coefficient of variation of 3.7%.[18]
Fertilization age is sometimes used postnatally (after birth) as well to estimate various risk factors. For example, it is a better predictor than postnatal age for risk of intraventricular hemorrhage in premature babies treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.[19]
Diseases[edit]
Various disorders can arise from defects in the fertilization process.
Polyspermy results from multiple sperm fertilizing an egg.
However, some researchers have found[citation needed] that in rare pairs of fraternal twins, their origin might have been from the fertilization of one egg cell from the mother and eight sperm cells from the father. This possibility has been investigated by computer simulations of the fertilization process.
See also[edit]
Spontaneous conception, the unassisted conception of a subsequent child after prior use of assisted reproductive technology
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Garrison, Fielding. An Introduction to the History of Medicine, pages 566-567 (Saunders 1921).
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-12-22. Retrieved 2016-01-24.
Jump up ^ http://www.americanpregnancy.org/preventingpregnancy/pregnancyfaqmyths.html
Jump up ^ Lawyers Guide to Forensic Medicine SBN 978-1-85941-159-9 By Bernard Knight - Page 188 "Pregnancy is well known to occur from such external ejaculation ..."
Jump up ^ "Fertilization of the Ovum". Gray's Anatomy. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Fertilization". Retrieved 28 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Angier, Natalie (2007-06-12). "Sleek, Fast and Focused: The Cells That Make Dad Dad". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Suzanne Wymelenberg, Science and Babies, National Academy Press, page 17
Jump up ^ Richard E. Jones and Kristin H. Lopez, Human Reproductive Biology, Third Edition, Elsevier, 2006, page 238
Jump up ^ "Fertilization: The Cortical Reaction". Boundless. Boundless. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Jodar, M.; Selvaraju, S.; Sendler, E.; Diamond, M. P.; Krawetz, S. A.; for the Reproductive Medicine Networks (2013). "The presence, role and clinical use of spermatozoal RNAs". Human Reproduction Update. 19 (6): 604–624. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmt031. PMC 3796946  . PMID 23856356.
^ Jump up to: a b Marieb, Elaine M. Human Anatomy and Physiology, 5th ed. pp. 1119-1122 (2001). ISBN 0-8053-4989-8
Jump up ^ https://www.genderselectionauthority.com/blog/five-facts-about-xx-or-xy
Jump up ^ Wagner F, Erdösová B, Kylarová D (December 2004). "Degradation phase of apoptosis during the early stages of human metanephros development". Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub. 148 (2): 255–6. doi:10.5507/bp.2004.054. PMID 15744391.
Jump up ^ Robinson, H. P.; Fleming, J. E. E. (1975). "A Critical Evaluation of Sonar "crown-Rump Length" Measurements". BJOG: an International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 82 (9): 702–710. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1975.tb00710.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Geirsson RT (May 1991). "Ultrasound instead of last menstrual period as the basis of gestational age assignment". Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1 (3): 212–9. doi:10.1046/j.1469-0705.1991.01030212.x. PMID 12797075.
Jump up ^ Derived from a standard deviation in this interval of 2.6, as given in: Fehring RJ, Schneider M, Raviele K (2006). "Variability in the phases of the menstrual cycle". J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 35 (3): 376–84. doi:10.1111/j.1552-6909.2006.00051.x. PMID 16700687.
Jump up ^ Jukic AM, Baird DD, Weinberg CR, McConnaughey DR, Wilcox AJ (2013). "Length of human pregnancy and contributors to its natural variation". Hum. Reprod. 28 (10): 2848–55. doi:10.1093/humrep/det297. PMC 3777570  . PMID 23922246.
Jump up ^ Jobe, Alan H (2004). "Post-conceptional age and IVH in ECMO patients". The Journal of Pediatrics. 145 (2): A2. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2004.07.010.
External links[edit]
Fertilization (Conception)
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